READING 4 U

 

CONTENTS

 

● Asperger's Syndrome; a Disadvantage or an Asset?

● How to Achieve Financial Success

● What is the Future of Electric Cars?

● Harry Houdini – the King of Illusionists

● Hedy Lamarr and her Inventions

● Artificial Intelligence (AI)

● The Apollo Space Program

● Memory and its Functioning

● Analysis of the Situation in Offices and Companies

● When You Feel a Lack of Life Energy ...

● How to Make a Good Lawyer

● The Ecological Policy of the State

● The History of Common Law

● Human Resources Management

 

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ASPERGER'S SYNDROME; A DISADVANTAGE OR AN ASSET?

 

Asperger's Syndrome (AS) is the name of a pervasive neurodevelopmental [neurorozwojowy] disorder that, although recognised as a separate diagnosis, is connected to autism spectrum disorder. The name of this disorder comes from the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, who in 1944 described children under his care, who had difficulty with making friends, did not understand other people's gestures and feelings, conducted one-sided conversations [prowadziły jednostronne rozmowy] about their favourite interests, and showed motor clumsiness [niezdarność ruchową]. The special features of children affected by Asperger's syndrome are a rapid process of speech development and rapid cognitive development [rozwój poznawczy], these children can be also considered eccentric due to their unusual interests. These traits continue to develop in them as adults.

Such people feel best when live in an orderly environment [w uporządkowanym otoczeniu] with established patterns [z ustalonymi schematami]. Trying to change this state of affairs usually causes strong frustration in them and may, in extreme cases, even lead to aggressive behaviour. There are also problems in assessing the level of importance of the activities performed and in assessing [w ocenie] the time needed to perform a given activity, excessive concentration on one activity and the inability to change the object of concentration (inflexibility [nieelastyczność]). In addition, these people feel a strong need to finish a task once started, and when someone is trying to interrupt such an activity, it manifests in them in strong stress and attempts to justify 'by force' the reason for performing such activity.  Another common problem these people have is the fear of loud noises and working with noisy equipment; for example, a drill [wiertarka], a loud vacuum cleaner, etc. This type of hypersensitivity [nadwrażliwości] can also affect other senses, for example, walking barefoot on the grass, water or sweat on the skin after exercise, and other sensations that seem either exaggerated [wyolbrzymione] or extremely unpleasant. They also feel much more pain during medical procedures; such as a prick of an injection, which other people tolerate much better.

As the number of diagnosed cases of Asperger's syndrome increases, the picture of the disorder is constantly changing, but it has been connected (and rightly so!) to high achievements of mathematicians, physicists, computer scientists and engineers, and it has been found that having the syndrome often correlates with top-level achievements in these fields. The same is also true for creators; such as painters, writers, etc.

The first cases of this disorder were described by Hans Asperger in the 1940s, but practically until the 1980s, such a diagnosis had not been made anywhere in the world. Does this mean that cases of this syndrome did not exist before? Quite the opposite, people with symptoms of Asperger's syndrome have always lived among us. It's just that they closed themselves off in their own world, focused on their interests or lived somewhere lonely and misunderstood. Some of them were considered weirdos [odmieńcy], some geniuses, and almost all of them eccentrics. Moreover, Hans Asperger himself, according to some reports, also showed the symptoms in childhood, which later became the subject of his research. It should be clearly emphasized that this disorder does not cause limitations in mental development, on the contrary, people with it have a high IQ and a fast ability to acquire knowledge. The group of people affected by Asperger syndrome includes many outstanding artists, creators, politicians and even athletes. Researchers agree that Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton, Thomas Jefferson, Charles de Gaulle, George Orwell, very probably Leonardo da Vinci, and many other outstanding creators of the Middle Ages had Asperger's syndrome. Among contemporary [współczesnych] celebrities who have admitted to being affected by Asperger's syndrome there are Bill Gates, Elon Musk and ... a footballer Leo Messi. What characterises this dysfunction is primarily disorders in social contacts, fixations and stereotypes, cognitive disorders, disorders of speech development, difficulties in understanding speech, difficulties in communication, anxiety disorders [zaburzenia lękowe]. People suffering from Asperger's syndrome have social problems and tend to be withdrawn [bywają wycofane]. Interestingly, this dysfunction occurs much more often in boys than in girls.

For parents, it is important to know that a child with Asperger's does not like changes; she / he requires that simple, everyday activities, such as getting dressed, be performed at fixed times and in the same order; the child shows reluctance to cuddle [do przytulania się], has speech development disorders (e.g. uses strange, non-existent words), is hypersensitive to sound, smell and touch stimuli [bodźce]. Such a child avoids spontaneous contact, is not very keen on playing with other children, creates complicated rituals and behaviours, rigidly adheres [sztywno trzyma się] to instructions and rules, has a schematic way of thinking and learning, focuses on irrelevant [nieistotnych] details and shows many other symptoms. A factor that also complicates the diagnosis of Asperger's is other dysfunctions that accompany it; such as ADHD, compulsive-obsessive disorders [zaburzenia kompulsywno-obsesyjne], depressive disorders, selective mutism [mutyzm wybiórczy] or addictions (e.g. to a computer).

Asperger's syndrome is an incurable disorder and it is very important to accept this state of affairs and understand that this dysfunction cannot be eliminated. We have to learn to live with it. Besides, Asperger's syndrome does not have to be a disadvantage but can be an asset. People affected by this syndrome are usually above average talented and – when they find the right job for them and accepted by them – they can be even geniuses in what they do. The best example are the people mentioned above.

 

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HOW TO ACHIEVE FINANCIAL SUCCESS

 

What makes some people achieve financial success despite many difficulties or the fact that they come from poor families, for example? What traits [cechy] do you need to have to achieve such success?

 

These questions will be answered by experts whose statements we can read below. The following article was created from statements by such authorities as David Bollier, Garett Sutton, Robert Kiyosaki, William D. Danko, Thomas J. Stanley, Brian Tracy, Josh Davis, Dean Graziosi, Tom Hopkins, Henry Ford, Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Elon Musk, Warren Buffett, Andrzej Moszczyński and others.

 

Here is their advice:

 

■ Set goals regularly and create plans to achieve them, and after achieving them, set new ones. Think long-term and divide your goals into the nearest time (e.g. the coming week) and for the next month and a year. However, it is essential to make plans and implement them, unless [chyba że] the situation requires their correction.

 

■ Work on yourself every day; people who are successful are constantly trying to improve themselves. They read and educate in their field every day, trying to broaden their horizons and knowledge. Contrary to appearances, even general knowledge helps a lot in implementing [pomaga w realizacji] detailed plans. Working on yourself means improving your skills. It is often not easy, but overcoming obstacles [pokonywanie przeszkód] is a great way to develop. Try also to develop good habits; people who are successful definitely have more good habits than bad ones.

 

■ Nurture your relationships with other people. Take the time to cultivate friendships and build lasting bonds [długotrwałych więzi]. Offer help if needed, without expecting anything in return. Napoleon's famous trait was that he remembered the names or surnames of thousands of his soldiers; this greatly strengthened his position in the army and these soldiers were willing to sacrifice for him [gotowi do poświęceń dla niego]. So try to remember the names of everyone you meet. Don't you love it when someone remembers your name? Remembering someone's name is sure to impress such a person.

 

■ Take care of your health, even when it is very difficult, do not eat junk food, shape your habits in a healthy lifestyle; e.g. regularly do jogging and other recreational sports. To enjoy success and money you should be healthy. So eat properly and do sports regularly. A proper diet is extremely important, and sports should become as natural to you as a daily shower. People who exercise regularly have more energy to act.

 

■ Think positively – even in the most difficult situations – and when such a situation appears in your life, think this way: “What would Henry Ford, Bill Gates, Steve Jobs (insert here the name of your favourite successful person) do in such a situation? Remember that we are all bombarded with hundreds of bad news every day; people who are successful do not let themselves be overcome [nie dają się opanować] by negative thoughts.

 

■ Don't put off until tomorrow what you can do today. If you have to do something, do it. We all have fears [obawy, lęki], but achieving success is about [tu: polega na] overcoming them. Successful people don't know what procrastination [odkładanie na potem] is and they do important things regardless of [niezależnie od] the cost. If you are tempted [kusi cię] to put off something important, get motivated and tell yourself: 'Just do it!' and repeat this phrase until you get it done.

 

■ Save money systematically. Successful people regularly put aside about 10-20% of their earnings in the form of savings, investments or retirement funds. Of course, not everyone can afford it, but regularly putting aside even small amounts will pay off over time. Spend your money rationally and never, ever live beyond your means! [nie żyj ponad stan] The iron rule is to never spend more than you earn. Never take out loans for consumption purposes; for example, for a trip abroad, you will only finance such a trip when you earn for it.

 

■ Work more than is necessary. Successful people are those who do more than the bare minimum at work. When necessary, they are willing to take on tasks that are not their responsibility, making them [co sprawia, że] invaluable [bezcennymi] employees. Even if you run your own business and are your own boss, you need to have ways to impress your clients.

 

■ A wonderful, old rule is: 'Speak less, listen more'. By listening you learn, by speaking you only repeat what you already know, and what is worse [a co gorsza], you can inadvertently [niechcący] pass on your invaluable ideas to someone. Listening carefully to the interlocutor is also very important in business. Listening allows you to solve problems better and understand other people.

 

■ Never give up! The biographies of all successful people, without exception, show that they always persistently pursued [wytrwale dążyli] their goals and were not afraid to look for new solutions, and if some of their previous solutions had turned out to be ineffective, instead of crying [zamiast płakać], they looked for new ones.

 

■ If you are a budding [początkującym] businessman, find a mentor. Many people who have achieved success admit that they owe [zawdzięcza] it to their mentor. A mentor will help you achieve your goals faster and stick to your plan. He / She will also share their valuable knowledge, so you will save time that you would have to spend on learning your business.

 

■ Don't let fear get to you! We are all afraid of something. People who are successful don't let fear take over [by lęk wziął górę] and control their actions. Think about what you are afraid of and look for ways to overcome your weaknesses. For example, you can talk to someone you admire and ask how they managed to overcome their fears, or read an interesting biography to get inspiration for further action.

 

■ Always improve your skills throughout your life. In an ever-changing world, you need to prepare for new circumstances and challenges that arise. Every day, think about what skills you lack and what would allow you to improve your competences. Choose one aspect and focus on it, for example, for the next 30 days.

 

■ Maintain order. This applies [to dotyczy] to both your immediate surroundings [najbliższego otoczenia] and the entire sphere of business you run; regardless [bez względu] of its size. Take control of your surroundings! Start with your desk. Tidy up and arrange everything on your desk, and then, gradually [stopniowo] making wider circles, tidy up your entire business surroundings. It is best to dedicate time to it when you are tired; for example, in the evening after work. Contrary to appearances [wbrew pozorom], tidying up is not tiring at all [wcale nie męczy], but helps us relax. Try it and you will see that order in life works wonders! [czyni cuda]

 

■ And finally, some advice from Warren Buffett, considered an icon of investing, a billionaire and philanthropist who is famous for his frugal [oszczędnego] lifestyle. His views are considered valuable advice for people striving for financial success. Below are some of his key pieces of advice, especially important for beginner investors.

 

Rule No. 1: Never lose money. Try to live frugally, not on credit.

 

Rule No. 2: Never forget rule #1.

 

Rule No. 3: Make very informed decisions [tu: świadome decyzje] and only invest in companies which business you have thoroughly researched [dokładnie zbadałeś] and understood, which will give you confidence in making investment decisions.

 

Rule No. 4: Price is what you pay. Value is what you get. In a 2008 letter to Berkshire Hathaway shareholders, Buffett pointed out that financial losses occur when the price exceeds [przewyższa] the value of the investment. Spending on unnecessary items or credit cards is, according to his philosophy, a waste of money. 'Whether it's socks or stocks [skarpetki czy akcje], I like to buy high-quality goods when they're on sale', [kiedy są sprzedawane na przecenie] Buffett said.

 

Rule No. 5: Invest in yourself as much as you can. Buffett believes that anything you invest in yourself will pay off tenfold [tu: zwraca się dziesięciokrotnie]. Knowledge, unlike an asset or investment, is a permanent asset [trwałą wartością] that no one can take away or tax.

 

And now, dear Entrepreneurs, take action!

 

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WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF ELECTRIC CARS?

 

While electric cars will not completely replace petrol and gas-powered vehicles in the near future, the process of phasing out [wycofywania] combustion [spalinowych] engines has already begun. Many factors must change to fulfill the hopes that electric cars (EVs) will dominate the transport. First and foremost, battery production must increase and the infrastructure for charging [ładowania] them must improve significantly. And – perhaps most importantly – electric vehicles will have to become cheaper, which means become cheaper to produce.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2021, electric vehicle sales almost doubled comparing to the previous year to 6.6 million units (a share of almost 9%), bringing the number of electric cars on the road to 16.5 million. However, this figure does not include hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), as they can be powered by both petrol engines and electricity. Industry analysts say that the pace of electric car sales is gradually increasing, and they predict that by the end of 2024, there will be probably more than 100 EV models available [dostępnych], by the end of 2025, electric vehicle sales can account [tu: stanowić] for up to 20% of new car sales, and by 2030, electric vehicle sales can reach 40% of new car sales. They also predict that by 2040, electric vehicle sales can account for almost all new car sales.

The future of electric vehicles depends on many factors, the most important of them are:

 

1. When the United States will accept electric vehicles as the dominant vehicle and whether these vehicles will become a priority for most consumers, manufacturers, and even lawmakers [ustawodawców] in the country.

 

2. Fleet turnover. [Rotacja floty]

Fleet turnover refers to how quickly new vehicles replace vehicles on the road. Because modern petrol-powered cars are more reliable and last longer than ever, it will take longer for future electric vehicles to replace them. Other factors that affect fleet turnover include urban transport planning and ride-sharing services [usługi współdzielenia przejazdów].

 

3. Automakers’ conversions.

Automakers are working to convert their production lines to all-electric vehicles [przestawić swoje linie produkcyjne na pojazdy całkowicie elektryczne], but their conversion timelines [tu: harmonogramów] vary. Some have pledged [zobowiązali się] to end petrol-powered car sales by 2035, while others could take as long as 2045-2050 to achieve that aim, unless a strict conversion law is enacted [chyba że wprowadzony zostanie restrykcyjny obowiązek konwersji].

 

4. Legislation.

A number of U.S. states have passed laws or governors have signed executive orders [rozporządzenia wykonawcze] banning the sale of new gasoline-powered passenger cars in their states by 2035. If this happens nationally, the majority of passenger cars on U.S. roads could be electric by 2050. The same must happen in Canada and the European Union, and then other countries around the world must follow them; first of all China.

 

5. Infrastructure.

If more electric cars hit the road, there will need to be adequate infrastructure to charge them. Legislation is gradually being passed to begin works on installing a network of charging points in the US, Canada and EU countries, but this will take many years.

  

6. Consumer influence on the future of electric cars.

The projected increase in EV acceptance [akceptacji pojazdów elektrycznych] comes with several additional obstacles [przeszkodami] for consumers to overcome. The most important of these include the cost of exploitation, driving habits and driver concerns [obawy] about how far they can go on a single charge [na jednym ładowaniu].

 

7. Electric Vehicle Prices.

While the total cost of owning an electric car is lower than a petrol-powered car, the purchase price of an electric vehicle in 2021 was about $10,000 higher than the average for all cars. Installing a home EV charger, replacing an EV battery, and even insuring [ubezpieczenie] an EV can be expensive. Ultimately [ostatecznie], EV adoption will increase when the cost of purchasing and maintaining electric vehicles is comparable to petrol (gasoline) cars.

 

8. Driving Habits.

As more companies and employees adopt remote work, future driving habits and car purchases may also change. People who drive less may be less likely to swap an older vehicle and invest in an electric option.

 

9. Range anxiety. [Lęk przed zasięgiem]

Range anxiety is a term coined for people who fear that an electric vehicle will drain its battery over extended periods of time and leave them stranded [pozostawi ich na lodzie]. This fear may diminish as more charging stations become available. This fear will also diminish as batteries become more powerful and people realise that they often don’t drive too much for the range would be an issue [aby zasięg był problemem]. If the industry can face these challenges quickly and decisively, EV adoption will increase faster than experts predict.

 

10. Fear of upgrading too soon. [Obawa przed zbyt wczesną wymianą pojazdu na następny]

It’s very important for consumers buying electric cars, to be confident [być pewnymi], that they can keep their vehicles for at least 10 years without making any major investments in the vehicle. Is that possible? The weak point here is the batteries. Electric vehicle batteries are quite durable [wytrzymałe] and the lithium-ion batteries used in most modern electric vehicles last at least a decade before they need to be replaced. Many automakers offer 8-10 year or 100,000 mile warranties [gwarancje] on their electric car batteries, which can help ease consumer concerns about battery durability.

 

Will electric cars really save the world from CO2 emissions? Electric vehicles eliminate tailpipe emissions [emisję spalin z rury wydechowej] and that is undoubtedly their great advantage, but they do not eliminate all emissions. So are hydrogen cars the real future of motoring?

Hydrogen cars are currently not very profitable for a wider group of buyers. First of all, there are too few hydrogen fuel stations, and hydrogen itself is not yet commercially or ecologically profitable for mass production. Will hydrogen cars replace EVs? Experts are divided on this issue. Hydrogen production using renewable energy sources such as solar or wind power is not yet commercially viable [tu: opłacalna] on a large scale. Storing and transporting hydrogen is also very expensive, and its storage requires complex engineering and materials. This issue is therefore still completely open and the only hope is the further development of new technologies, which, as history shows, is absolutely certain.

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 HARRY HOUDINI – THE KING OF ILLUSIONISTS

 

Harry Houdini – one of the most famous illusionists, escape artists and acrobatic performers of all time was born in 1874 in Budapest as Erik Weisz into a Jewish family of a Rabbi Mayer Samuel Weisz. In 1878, his family emigrated to the USA, where his father became a rabbi in Appleton, Wisconsin. Shortly after his father obtained [otrzymał] US citizenship in June 1882, the Weisz family moved to New York. As a young boy, Houdini used to take up various jobs, one of which was an apprenticeship with a locksmith [praktyka u ślusarza], and it was then that he learned how to open locks without using a key.

He made his public debut at the age of nine with a trapeze performance [pokazem występów na trapezie], calling himself 'Ehrich, Prince of Air' but then officially changed his name to Harry Houdini and began a career as an illusionist, although initially without much success until he met the artist Wilhelmina Beatrice 'Bess' Rahner in 1893, whom he married after three weeks of knowing each other and who worked as his stage assistant throughout his career. Houdini was more than a magician: he was ahead of his time [wyprzedził swoją epokę], using promotion and advertising techniques that are still used today. He also fought the fashion for spiritualism and it can be definitely said [zdecydowanie można powiedzieć] that he was the first world star of illusionism.

Houdini initially focused [koncentrował się] on traditional card tricks, but gradually began to use the acts of escaping from all types of restraints [tu: uwięzień, zakuć itp.]; that is, escaping from being tied up or handcuffed, etc. Other tricks he performed included escapes and disappearances [zniknięcia] of all types; one of his most famous tricks was presented at the London Hippodrome and it was a trick of making a huge elephant (along with its trainer) disappear from a stage with a swimming pool underneath [pod którą znajdował się basen], which was in fact a brilliantly designed optical effect. However his favourite tricks were escapes, and the breakthrough in Houdini's career was meeting a showman Martin Beck in 1899, who hired him in a traveling vaudeville show called 'Orpheum'. Thanks to Houdini's tricks, Orpheum became one of the most famous vaudeville shows in the USA within a few months. In 1900, Houdini went to Europe with his performances, where he also celebrated great triumphs, then again performed with great success in the United States; he used to freed himself from shackles [kajdan], chains, ties and straitjackets [kaftanów bezpieczeństwa], even when suspended [zawieszony] on a rope and underwater. In 1913, he demonstrated one of his most famous tricks, the 'Chinese torture water chamber', in which he was placed upside down [do góry nogami], in a closed box made of steel and glass completely filled with water; he held his breath in it for 3 minutes.

Houdini's signature trick [tu: popisowa sztuczka] was freeing himself from 'impossible situations'. In the first performances that brought him fame, he locked himself up almost naked and chained [skuty łańcuchami] in a tiny cell in a high-security prison. Usually, within 10 minutes, he would free himself, appear before the mayor, and handcuff him. It was a great performance, prepared in the smallest detail.

He explained some of his tricks in books published during his career. In 'Handcuff Secrets' (1909) he explained how many locks and handcuffs could be opened by applying the right amount of force, even using a shoelace [sznurówki]. In other cases he would hide picks [wytrychy] or keys in his throat and then return them, for example, while underwater. He was able to free himself from a milk can [bańki na mleko] that was tightly closed from the outside, because in such a can it was possible to unscrew the lid [odkręcenie pokrywy] from the inside. When hanging on a rope dressed in a straitjacket, while putting it on [podczas jego zakładania] he would take in the maximum amount of air and tense up [napinał] – as much as he could – all his muscles, which meant that after releasing the air and relaxing the muscles the straitjacket was put on loosely enough to free himself. He also used to present escapes from the straitjacket by hiding behind a curtain, and then he emerged from behind already free.He was also tied up in every possible way, and then he threw himself off bridges and then floated [wynurzał się] to the surface of the river, receiving a storm of applause from his growing audience. His greatest feat was to flow over the Niagara Falls in a barrel, from which he emerged unharmed.

Houdini was a master of PR. He established contacts with the press and informed them about his exploits [wyczynach], and this incredibly increased the demand for tickets to his performances. One can say that Houdini created the modern model of advertising; for example he hired seven bald men who, before his performance, walked around the city and bowed [kłaniali się] to his images on posters [plakatach], and used a lot of other PR tricks that have survived to this day.Houdini developed an entire production of promotional posters in which he encouraged people to put handcuffs on him. He promised that if he could not get them off, he would give them a large sum of money. He collaborated with the best illustrators of the time and even hired H.P. Lovecraft, later known for horror films, to write scripts for his advertisements. Many books were published about his life and several films were made in which he was played by such famous actors as Tony Curtis, Norman Mailer and Adrien Brody but Houdini also appeared in front of the camera himself. He debuted with a 15-episode series 'The Master Mystery', which was broadcast in cinemas before the main films. One episode was about 8 minutes long and showed Houdini's tricks. Each episode ended at the climax [punkcie kulminacyjnym] of the scene, forcing viewers to return a week later to see how his next feat ended. His fame made him travel the world a lot, but contrary to some legends, he was not a spy during World War I, although he was a guest at the courts of Wilhelm II and the Romanovs. It is said that during one of his visits to the Tsar, he ridiculed [wyśmiał] Rasputin himself.

For a long time, in the public opinion, his greatest enemy was Theodore Hardeen, and their rivalry was ruthless [bezwzględna]. Hardeen seemed to copy and improve Houdini's tricks. Both raised the bar higher and higher [podnosili poprzeczkę coraz wyżej], and the press reported their feats [wyczyny] and the challenges they set each other. The rivalry lasted for years, until it was finally revealed that it was just a staged game. Hardeen was none other than Ferenc Dezső Weisz, Houdini's younger brother. With this media hoax [tu: mistyfikacji], the Weisz brothers made sure that wherever they appeared, they were the center of attention and left no room for any competition. When Houdini died, Ferenc continued his tricks.

After the death of his mother in the 1920s, Houdini devoted himself to exposing self-proclaimed psychics and mediums, inspiring other illusionists to do the same. Houdini’s practice in the art of illusion allowed him to expose frauds that even renowned scientists were fooled by. Using his growing fame as a “ghostbuster” [pogromca duchów], Houdini began exposing cheats [oszustwa] in these séances, accompanied by a reporter and a police officer. Perhaps the most famous medium to be exposed [zdemaskowanym] in this way was Mina Crandon, also known as the Margery Medium from Boston. Houdini described his experiences with exposing spiritualists in a book called “A Magician Among the Spirits”.

However, this exposure of spiritualists cost Houdini the friendship of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the creator of the character of Sherlock Holmes, who was a great believer in spiritualism towards the end of his life and who did not believe Houdini's statements on the subject. Doyle believed that Houdini himself was a powerful spiritualist medium, considering many of his tricks to be manifestations of the paranormal forces, and that his exposure activities were simply getting rid of the competition.

Houdini died of peritonitis [zapalenie otrzewnej] following appendicitis [zapalenie wyrostka robaczkowego] in 1926, at the age of 52, and it was said that it had been caused by McGill University student J. Gordon Whitehead, who in Montreal hit him repeatedly in the lower abdomen, supposedly as a result of a bet with Houdini that he could take any blow without any consequences to his health. Houdini's funeral was held in New York on November 4, followed by thousands of mourners [żałobników]. Houdini was escorted to Machpelah Cemetery in Queens, and his tomb bears the coat of arms of the American Society of Illusionists. Its members still perform the ritual of 'breaking of the magic wand' at Houdini's grave on the anniversary of his death.

 

Sources:

Wikipedia

Anna Durand (Onet Lifestyle i Kultura)

 

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HEDY LAMARR AND HER INVENTIONS

 

If you use a smartphone or use Wi-Fi technology, think sometimes fondly [pomyśl czasem ciepło] of Hedy Lamarr; an Austrian-American actress, an incredible [tu: niezwykła] woman who made a significant contribution to their development. It is to her that we owe Wi-Fi, which is so common today. The name Wi-Fi is an abbreviation [skrót] of the English term 'Wireless Fidelity', which means wireless compatibility. As you know, it is a technology due to which devices can be wirelessly connected to the Internet.

 

Hedy Lamarr was born in Vienna in 1914 into an assimilated Jewish family, she was the only child and the daughter of a wealthy Austrian banker, and her real name was Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler. She wanted to become an actress since she was a child and convinced her parents to let her leave school to pursue acting. Thanks to her beauty, she appeared in a film for the first time in 1930. She was especially famous in the 1933 film 'Ecstasy', in which she appeared nude [wystąpiła nago]. This film caused a great scandal: in 1936 it was blacklisted in the USA, in Europe Adolf Hitler banned [zakazał] its screening in Germany and in most countries that decided to show the film, it was censored by cutting out nude scenes. In 1933, Hedwig married a businessman Fritz Mandl, one of the richest Austrians who, despite of his Jewish origin, was in close relations with Austrian fascists and acquired his fortune from arms trade with Nazi Germany. Of course, the jealous husband tried to buy all copies of the film 'Ecstasy', but without success. Immediately after the wedding, Mandl forbade his wife acting in films and treated her almost as his property. Since Mandl had numerous contacts among the elites of the then authorities, so his wife almost certainly met both Mussolini and Hitler, but thanks to the fact that he was involved in the production of weapons, especially radio communication systems, Hedwig had the opportunity to become familiar [zapoznać się] with modern technology, which was her second hobby after acting.

 

It is necessary to mention here that Hedwig had a knack [smykałkę] for technology from her early age and her father used to take her for walks and explain the world around her. Apparently, at the age of 5, she was able to take apart and reassemble her music box [pozytywkę] many times to see how it worked. Moreover, both parents had a huge influence on her later career. After her father she gained an interest in technique, which she cultivated throughout her life, while her mother, in turn, shaped her artistic passions by enrolling her in piano and ballet lessons. In 1937, fed up with her husband and his fascist views, Hedwig decided to run away from Friedrich, who, despite his Jewish roots, openly supported Hitler. Supposedly [podobno], she sewed the jewelry into the lining of her coat [zaszyła biżuterię w podszewkę płaszcza], changed into her maid's outfit, and, disguised [pod przebraniem], she fled to London, where she met the film producer Louis Mayer, co-founder of the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio, who was staying there at that time and (probably using her charms) she successfully managed to negotiate a favourable contract for herself with the MGM studio. She then changed her name to Hedy Lamarr in honour of the silent film star Barbara La Marr and in 1938, together with Mayer, she moved to Hollywood, where she played in many films until the end of 1941.

 

In Hollywood, she acted with the biggest movie stars and appeared in 17 films within 6 years, but she did not become a big star, but was advertised as the most beautiful woman in Hollywood. After two years at MGM, however, the producers began to doubt in her career, and after the appearance of Ingrid Bergman, who quickly became a star, Lamarr withdrew from her acting career and in 1942 broke her contract with MGM. However during her Hollywood career, Hedy pursued her great hobby in her spare time; i.e. inventions and, among others, she developed an effervescent pill [pastylkę musującą] that makes a drink similar to Coca-Cola and a container for used tissues glued to a box with clean ones, but none of her inventions gained much recognition. That self-made inventor also dealt with, among others, improving modern street lamps or developing a dog collar that glows at night.

 

Her most important invention - the progenitor [protoplasta] of the smartphone and Blue Tooth technology - began to come to fruition when, in September 1940, a German submarine torpedoed a British ship carrying children. It was then that Hedy Lamarr and her friend, composer George Antheil, outraged [oburzeni] by the barbarity of the Germans, decided to develop a torpedo control system using radio waves. The idea to solve this problem was born during the attempts of the composer, when he tried to compose an extremely complex piece for the film 'Ballet Mécanique'. To play the composition live, Antheil wanted to use a dozen pianolas, several xylophones, bass drums and other instruments, as well as the sounds of a siren and a propeller [śmigła].

All this was supposed to 'play' the melody during the movie, but it was quite a challenge [wyzwanie] because it required switching frequencies while playing the song. When the composer told Hedy about this problem, they started to think about synchronising the live sound with the image, and that's how they came up with the idea of sending a control signal using a frequently changing frequency method.

Based on this idea, Hedy and Antheil developed a system of controlling the torpedo using rapidly changing frequencies to prevent the enemy from taking control of the torpedo, and for this purpose they decided to use tape reels [rolki z taśmami] that Antheil used to control his musical instruments. The essence of the invention was that in order to control the torpedo in a way that was unpredictable to the opponent, control signals had to be sent at constantly changing frequencies, which meant that the opponent was unable to predict [przewidzieć] in which direction the torpedo was heading. Lamarr was inspired by the pianola, in which a paper strip with holes [papierowy pasek z dziurkami] played the desired melody when scrolled [podczas przewijania]. The same paper strip, which would move synchronously in both the torpedo and the transmitter, would enable the transmission on a variable frequency.

That meant that without knowing this paper strip, i.e. the code, a potential opponent could not jam [zagłuszyć] such a signal. Heda Lamarr's idea was that at a certain designated time, single short pulses begin to appear, transmitting a signal and, therefore, information sent. The frequency change is then triggered [wywoływana]. This method guaranteed greater security in signal transmission, and any minor disruptions [zakłócenia] which would lead to the data loss, would be minimised due to an appropriate error checking system. In the description contained in the patent, the frequency of the transmitter and receiver (80 frequencies were planned) was automatically tuned by contacts opening and closing as two identical perforated tapes moved, the movement of which was controlled by synchronous clock mechanisms, triggered [tu: wyzwalane] automatically when the torpedo was launched from the ship.

 

In order to implement the idea, Antheil and Lamarr (then as Hedy Kiesler Markey - her married name at that time) on June 10, 1941, registered at the US Patent Office a system that is today referred to as FHSS (frequency-hopping spread spectrum) under the Patent Number 2292387. This patent was provided free of charge to the US Navy, but due to problems with the propagation [propagacją] of radio waves under water, the lack of appropriate technology and concerns [obawami] about whether paper rolls would jam [zaciąć się] in an aquatic environment, no working prototype was built and the idea was not used during the war. However, in a text published in a special supplement to the New York Times in 1941, it was written: “Hedy Lamarr, a stage actress, appeared in a completely new role - an inventor. Her discovery is of the national defense importance and government officials are not allowing the detailed results of their work to be published.' Only after the war, in the 1960s, the improved invention, with a different purpose than the original one, was put into use by the US Navy, and due to its military use, it was kept secret until the mid-1980s. Variations of this invention became an element of the IEEE 802.11 and GSM standard radio networks used, and this in turn became the scientific basis for the invention of the technologies such as GPS, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, widely used around the world to this day. Unfortunately, it was not until 1997 when Hedy Lamarr received the long-awaited recognition [uznanie] by scientists and, together with Antheil, she received the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award and the Bulbie Gnass Spirit of Achievement Award, awarded to people whose achievements in the field of science, business or invention contributed [przyczyniły się] to the development of society.

 

Hedy Lamarr returned to acting after the war. She starred in several more productions, and in 1966 she published her autobiography called 'Ecstasy and Me', but then she left Hollywood and moved to Casselberry, Florida. Before it happened, however, it must be admitted that her personal life (apart from acting and inventions) was very lush [bujne] because she changed men like proverbial gloves. She had six husbands and many affairs. She also had an affair with a billionaire aircraft designer Howard Hughes and even helped him develop the wings that made his plane fly faster. Hughes was one of the few who admired and appreciated [doceniał] her passion. She could finally be herself with him. However, their mutual fascination did not last long. Rumour has it [jak głosiła plotka] that she and President Kennedy made love in the bathtub, later she married oil tycoon Howard Lee, and a year later the lawyer who helped her with her divorce.

She explained her failures in love by the weakness of men: 'Somewhere there must be someone who won't feel inferior to me [gorszy ode mnie]' she used to say, but the truth is that she did not find anyone like that and spent the last several dozen years of her life single. However, to the glitter of the big world, Hedy preferred intimate meetings with her friends and numerous fans in which world problems were discussed or spent hours at the drawing board [przy desce kreślarskiej], during which she worked in secret on her surprising inventions. After moving to Florida, she did not know that some time earlier the US Army had started to develop new technologies based on the Patent Number 2292387. Then civilian companies also began to use it. TV remote controls, mobile telephony, GPS, all this would not exist without Hedy Lamarr's brilliant idea! Only in the 1990s, when Hedy was already in her eighties, one of the large telecommunications companies came up with the idea to thank her. When the star answered the phone and heard what it was about, she reportedly said: 'Well, just in time!'

Hedy Lamarr died in 2000 at the age of 86, her ashes were moved to Vienna and scattered [rozsypane] over her beloved Austria.

 

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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

                                    

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence exhibited [wykazywana] by artificial devices, as opposed to natural intelligence. This term was coined [utworzony] by John McCarthy in 1956 at a conference in Dartmouth. In common parlance [w potocznym rozumieniu], it is often used in the context of 'true artificial intelligence.' In computer science and cognitive science [kognitywistyce], it also means creating models and programs that simulate, at least partially, the behaviour of an intelligent being; that is [czyli], a human being. Artificial intelligence is also the subject of considerations [rozważań] in philosophy (philosophy of artificial intelligence) and the subject of interest in social sciences.

Modern practical applications of artificial intelligence include:

 

- Technologies based on fuzzy logic [na logice rozmytej]; commonly used, for example, to control the course of technological processes in factories in conditions of 'lack of all data' [braku wszystkich danych].

 

- Expert systems using a knowledge base, written declaratively, [zapisaną w sposób deklaratywny] and reasoning mechanisms [mechanizmy wnioskowania] to solve problems.

 

- Machine translations of texts; that is, translation systems that are still not as good as humans, although they are making rapid progress. These systems are particularly suitable [nadają się szczególnie] for translating technical texts.

 

- Neural networks [sieci neuronowe], which have many applications, including programming 'intelligent opponents' in computer games.

 

- Machine learning; that is, a branch of artificial intelligence dealing with algorithms that can learn, make decisions or acquire [nabywać] knowledge.

 

- Data mining [eksploracja danych]; which discusses areas related to information needs, knowledge acquisition, applied [stosowane] analysis techniques and expected results.

 

- Image recognition [rozpoznawanie obrazów]; i.e. programs that recognise people based on facial photos or automatically recognise given objects in satellite photos, used both in surveillance [inwigilacji] by state entities and already widely used also on a commercial scale.

 

- Handwriting recognition (OCR) - already widely used, e.g. for automatic sorting of letters, recognition of the contents of CVs, e.g. in job applications and in electronic notebooks.

 

- Artificial creativity [twórczość]; that is, programs that automatically generate short poetic forms, compose, arrange and interpret musical pieces, which are able to effectively 'confuse' even professional artists, so that they do not recognise the songs as artificially generated [jako sztucznie wygenerowane].

 

- Image generation; i.e. images created by computer algorithms using machine learning techniques.

 

- Intelligent interfaces used for automated management, monitoring, reporting and attempts [próby] to solve potential problems in technological processes.

 

- Fraud forecasting and detection [prognozowanie i wykrywanie oszustw]; i.e. systems that use, among others, logistic regression analyses [regresji logistycznej] data sets to detect, for example, suspicious financial transactions.

 

- Real-time video analysis, which is used, among others, in monitoring systems, car and pedestrian traffic management systems and traffic forecasting.

 

- Finally, in economics, systems that automatically assess, among others, are widely used. creditworthiness [zdolność kredytową], profile of the best customers or systems planning advertising campaigns. These systems are previously subjected to automatic learning based on available data (e.g. bank customers who regularly repaid their loans and customers who had problems with this).

 

■ Is artificial intelligence a threat to the world?

 

When the wave of artificial intelligence sweeps [przetoczy się] across the world, it may eliminate hundreds of millions of jobs, both in mental and physical work. Who should be afraid of and who can sleep peacefully?

What professions will artificial intelligence replace?

First of all, artificial intelligence replaces work performed by humans and initially it begins to replace the following professions:

 

- Data entry worker [pracownik do wprowadzania danych]. Due to the ability of artificial intelligence to process and analyse huge amounts of data, the need for manual [ręcznego] data entry is reduced.

 

- Telemarketer. Now subscribers [abonenci] are no longer called by a person, but by a machine programmed with all possible [wszelkie możliwe] answers.

 

- Factory worker. Here, AI replaces workers operating production robots.

 

- Store cashier and bank cashier. Artificial intelligence can count itself the products or money due and check their compliance [zgodność] with the actual state.

 

- Driver. Autonomous [autonomiczne] vehicles will soon appear on the roads, driven by AI programmed to respond [reagować] to any road incidents.

 

- Travel agency. What's the point of an employee searching for interesting options if AI will do it much better and more accurately and then only bill you [wystawi rachunek] for the service.

 

- Legal Counsel. Instead of going to a person – a legal advisor, one can just present the problem to AI and it will answer the problem in the best possible way, finding the most optimal solution.

 

What is the future of artificial intelligence? It will certainly help solve many of the world's problems and create new opportunities for innovation and growth. Benefits include streamlining [obejmują usprawnienia], saving time, eliminating bias [uprzedzeń] and automating repetitive tasks, just to name a few. The disadvantages are expensive implementation [wdrożenie], potential job loss and lack of emotion and creativity. However, ethical issues [kwestie etyczne] will also play a key role in shaping the future of artificial intelligence.

Which professions will not be replaced by artificial intelligence? Here are the jobs that AI probably won't replace (at least in the foreseeable future):

 

- Social workers and social assistance [pomoc społeczna].

 

- Artists and designers.

 

- Writers and content creators [twórcy treści].

 

- Musicians and performers.

 

- High-level strategists and analysts.

 

- Scientists and engineers.

 

- Therapists whose main task is direct contact with people; such as psychologists.

 

- Skilled craftsmen [rzemieślnicy] and workers performing intensive work in positions requiring a combination of physical work and knowledge.

 

- People performing social or charitable [charytatywną] work, as well as caregivers [opiekunowie] of the elderly, sick or children.

 

Moreover, due to long-term trends, many of these professions will experience an explosion of employment.

 

The future of artificial intelligence is both fascinating and constantly disturbing [budząca niepokój], so what will our future look like as artificial intelligence develops? Here are some case scenarios.

 

According to Forrester, in the recently published article 'The Future of Work', which takes a pragmatic look at the impact [wpływ] of artificial intelligence and automation on our work industry, the author predicts that by 2030 the job loss rate will reach twenty-nine percent (equivalent to approximately 20 million jobs eliminated) with an even lower job creation rate of 13 percent. Not every company or organisation will be able to jump on the AI train and risk being overtaken by companies with a more robust, practical approach to AI. We are already seeing job patterns becoming obsolete [przestarzałe] with the advent of [wraz z pojawieniem się] autonomous cars, drones and factory automation.

 

Artificial intelligence will lead to more new and important discoveries in the future through predictive modeling [modelowaniu predykcyjnemu]. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory was able to predict new thermoelectric materials when artificial intelligence, left unsupervised [pozostawiona bez nadzoru], examined old research papers. In 2017, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) announced the discovery by artificial intelligence a solar system consisting of eight planets, and in 2019, astronomers from the University of Texas discovered two new planets also using artificial intelligence. What bodes for the future [wróży przyszłości] of artificial intelligence are new discoveries that will not only lead to scientific breakthroughs [przełomów], but in shorter periods of time. Thanks to AI, there is less tiring work for scientists who do not have to sift through thousands of scientific records, especially in emergency situations. It can also predict the emergence of a new virus, disease or epidemic and discover the appropriate [odpowiedni] drug that will be able to cure it. Besides, with well-written and researched algorithms, AI can also predict preventive [zapobiegawcze] measures to prevent such an epidemic from occurring.

 

Artificial intelligence accesses [uzyskuje dostęp] multiple data sets to reveal patterns of disease [wzorce chorób], diagnosis and treatment. This, in turn, will help the healthcare industry develop artificial intelligence algorithms that will improve life expectancy [poprawią długość życia] and predict the onset of diseases [początek chorób], improve drug research processes and help doctors make diagnoses. Drones are already transforming healthcare delivery [świadczenie usług medycznych], providing medical supplies, search and rescue operations [akcje ratownicze] and medical care. This technology will greatly benefit countries with poor health services. Moreover, nanotechnology combined with artificial intelligence will create a completely different way of treating [leczenia] diseases. Using nanotechnology, artificial intelligence can identify bad cells, especially in cancer patients, detect tumor penetration [penetrację nowotworu] and deliver drugs.

 

■ Will artificial intelligence help humanity?

 

With the dawn of robotics research [badań nad robotyką] that focuses on replicating and learning human behaviour, we have robots like Sanbot, Buddy and ASIMO. These robots will shape [tu: zmienią] the manufacturing of the future and will do much more – not only in factories, but they can also act as home caretakers [opiekunowie domu]. A robot that can search for the best solutions in the same way as a human, plan meetings, answer questions and perform basic human tasks will be very useful in running a household (e.g. preparing meals in line with someone's health needs) or conducting [prowadzeniu] everyday business matters .

 

In the face of recent months of development of new technologies, it is worth recalling [warto przypomnieć] Ray Kurzweil's predictions that by 2030 humanity will achieve immortality and artificial intelligence will officially pass the Turing test. The Turing test is a method used in artificial intelligence that determines whether a computer has the ability to think like a human being. This test was developed by Alan Turing in 1950. Kurzweil; a well-known computer scientist and futurist, has already successfully predicted many events in the field of new technologies.

For the year 2045, Kurzweil marks [wyznacza] another period for the development of artificial intelligence completely beyond [całkowicie poza] our actual imagination, but it is not a dystopian vision [wizja dystopijna]. In his understanding, the artificial intelligence that we will then create 'will multiply our effective intelligence a billion times by combining with it.' In the futurist's understanding, this future should not be feared [nie należy się tej przyszłości obawiać], but expected as something that will improve us and, as a result, make us 'like God'. But the truth is that Kurzweil has little more to back up his predictions than observations of how our technology is developing. Whether these predictions turn out to be true or not – we will find out in about seven years.

             

■ Conclusions and what shall we fear

 

Artificial intelligence will change the way we see the world, both positively and negatively. Anyone who holds the power of artificial intelligence in their hands must be careful while using it. Privacy laws and security parameters need to be reviewed to protect everyone from security vulnerabilities [tu: przed lukami w zabezpieczeniach]. Happily, the positives currently outweigh the negatives, so if research continues to be conducted with transparency [przejrzystością] and accountability, the balance will not tip [przechyli się] against humanity.

 

Taking over the world, destroying humanity or turning humans into machine slaves? Fans of science fiction films associate artificial intelligence with such threats. Even if these fears are justified, they are still far from being realised. Other, real threats related to the rapid development of AI are much more dangerous.

One of them is the creation of the so-called deepfakes – videos that depict real-looking people, including celebrities, who provide misleading information. Such disinformation techniques are becoming more and more advanced, which gives completely new opportunities for fraud and manipulation of individual people or the entire public opinion. Distinguishing [odróżnienie] the truth from falsehood becomes very difficult here and it is often necessary to use … artificial intelligence that will analyse such an image in order to detect forgery.

Equally important is understanding how AI processes and uses data. It is not only a matter of protecting our privacy, but also of learning how algorithms evaluate [oceniają] us in various situations, e.g. when applying for a loan or insurance. A lack of transparency in these processes can lead to unfair or discriminatory decisions. Above all, we should be careful about the information we share with AI-based systems. We should never share legally protected data [danymi chronionymi prawnie] unless we are sure of its security. It is always worth verifying the information provided by AI using other, independent sources. If we decide to share contents [tu: treści] generated by the algorithm, it is a good idea to mark it appropriately so as not to mislead others [wprowadzać innych w błąd].

 

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 THE APOLLO SPACE PROGRAM

 

The Apollo Space Program was a series of spaceflights which aim was to land the first humans on the Moon, was operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and was developed [został wdrożony] during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Program began after President John F. Kennedy proposed a national goal of 'landing a man on the Moon and returning from there safely to the Earth' during his famous address [przemówienia] to Congress on May 25, 1961. This aim was achieved with the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edvin Aldrin landed their Lunar Module (LM) on the Moon on July 20, 1969. Five more Apollo missions also landed on the Moon, the last one in December 1972. During those six space missions, 12 people walked on the surface of the Moon. As launch vehicles [pojazdy startowe], the Apollo Program used Saturn-type rockets, which were also used later in the Apollo Applications Program.

The Apollo Program was the greatest technological event of the twentieth century, and perhaps also in human history, despite two serious setbacks [niepowodzeń]; the fire in the Apollo 1 cabin in 1967, which killed the entire crew during a pre-launch test and a technical failure [awarii] during the Apollo 13 flight in 1970, which disabled [tu: wyłączyła z użycia] the command spacecraft's propulsion and life support, forcing the crew to use the Lunar Module as 'a lifeboat ' to these functions, thanks to which, a bit miraculously, they returned safely to Earth. The Apollo Program set milestones in spaceflights and is still the only one to send manned [załogowe] missions beyond the Earth orbit, and spurred [pobudził] advances in many areas of rocket and manned spaceflight technology, including avionics, telecommunications and the computer industry, and has been dubbed [nazwany] in honour of the Greek god of light and music Apollo by NASA manager Abe Silverstein.

Undoubtedly, the implementation [tu: zrealizowanie] of the Program was accelerated by the achievements of the USSR in the field of space exploration, especially the fact that on April 12, 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin was the first to go into space, reinforcing [wzmacniając] American fears of leaving them behind in technological competition with the Soviet Union.

In order to land people on the Moon, NASA had to unleash [uruchomić] great technological creativity and the largest commitment of financial resources [zaangażowanie zasobów] ($24 billion) ever undertaken by any country in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo Program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial companies and universities. It also required the transformation [przenosiny] of the Space Task Group company that led the National Space Program with NASA from the Langley Research Center to the new NASA center; the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in a facility built in Houston, Texas, on the land donated by Rice University.

 

■ Selection of technological solutions for the Apollo mission

The Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that could land humans on the Moon while minimising the risk to human life, cost, and requirements [wymagań] for technology and astronaut skills. Four possible mission modes [tu: rozwiązań] were considered, but eventually [ostatecznie] settled on the LOR (Lunar Orbit Rendezvous) method, whereby the main spacecraft and the smaller lunar lander travel to the lunar orbit separately, then the lunar lander descends to the lunar surface while the main spacecraft remains in the lunar orbit. At the end of its mission, the lander returns to the lunar orbit to rendezvous and is re-docked [ponownie dokuje] with the main spacecraft, then is jettisoned [odrzucany] after the crew and the load are transferred on the main spacecraft and then they return to the Earth. The LOR method also had the advantage of allowing the lander to be used as 'a lifeboat' in the event of a command ship failure, and such case happened during the Apollo 13 mission; when an oxygen tank failure left the command ship without electrical power. The Lunar Module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to bring the crew home safely. Both of these space vehicles were called modules; the lunar lander was named the Lunar Module (LM) and the main and return craft; the Command Module (CM).

The Command Module was a crew cabin, surrounded by a conical return heat shield [stożkowa osłona termiczna], designed to carry the three astronauts from the launch to the lunar orbit and back to the Earth's ocean splashdown [wodowanie]. As such, it was the only Apollo spacecraft component to survive without major configuration changes, as the program evolved from the early Apollo research projects. The equipment carried by the command module included reaction control engines, a docking tunnel, guidance and navigation systems and an Apollo navigation computer. Attached to the Command Module was the cylindrical Service Module (SM) that housed the service propulsion engine and fuel, fuel cell power system, four sets of maneuvering rudders [sterów], a long-range S-band antenna for lunar-Earth communication and water and oxygen tanks. On the last three lunar missions, this module also carried a set of science instruments. Because its configuration had been chosen before choosing a lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon, thus rebuilt [przebudowany] to about twice the thrust required for a translunar flight.

Just before re-entry into the atmosphere, the Service Module was ejected and only the Command Module re-entered the atmosphere using a special heat shield to survive the gigantic heat caused by air friction [tarcie]. After entering the lower layers of the atmosphere, parachutes were deployed [uruchamiane], which slowed down its descent, allowing for a smooth splashdown in the ocean.

The Lunar Module (LM) was designed to fly between the orbit of the Moon and its surface, alowing two astronauts to land on the Moon and taking them back to the Command Module. It had no aerodynamic heat shield and was so light that it would not be able to fly through the Earth's atmosphere. It consisted of two stages; descent and ascent [opadania i wznoszenia] ones. The descent stage contained compartments that held loads; such as the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package and the lunar vehicle: the Lunar Rover (LRV).

The contract to design and build the Lunar Module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was overseen by Tom Kelly. At first, however, there were significant technological problems with this module, which could delay the schedule of the entire Apollo program, but in the end the deadline was met on schedule [zgodnie z harmonogramem]. As for the launch vehicle, NASA initially opted for the Saturn IB rocket, which was an improved version of the earlier Saturn I rocket used in the early Apollo launches, and consisted of an S-IB first stage powered by eight RP-burning H-1 engines. 1 with LOX oxidiser for 1,600,000 lbf (7,100 kN) thrust, S-IVB-200 second stage powered by one J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen [ciekły wodór] with LOX oxidiser for 225,000 lbf (1,000 kN) thrust).

 

The Saturn IB rocket was capable of placing a partially fueled [zatankowanego] Command and Service Module or Lunar Module into the Earth orbit and was used on five Apollo test missions, including the first manned mission. It was also used in the manned missions of the Skylab program and the Apollo-Soyuz test project, while the Saturn V rocket that launched Apollo 11 in 1969 was already a three-stage rocket consisting of:

- S-IC first stage, powered by five F-1 engines in a cross array [w układzie krzyżowym], burning RP-1 with a LOX oxidiser to produce 7,500,000 lbf (33,000 kN) of thrust. These engines ran for 2.5 minutes, accelerating the spacecraft to about 6,000 miles per hour (2.68 km/s).

- The S-II second stage, powered by the five J-2 engines used in the S-IVB. These engines operated for about six minutes, accelerating [rozpędzając] the spacecraft to the speed of 15,300 miles per hour (6.84 km/s) and an altitude [wysokości na Ziemią] of about 115 miles (185 km).

- The S-IVB-500 third stage was similar to the Saturn IB second stage, with the ability to restart the J-2 engine. This engine ran for about two and a half minutes and shut down [wyłączał się] after reaching a low parking orbit. After two laps around the Earth to confirm that the spacecraft was ready to go to the Moon, the engine was restarted for an ejection maneuver, bringing the spacecraft into a very high orbit where it could be intercepted [przechwycony] by the Moon's gravity. In total, the manned Apollo missions to the Moon were launched by nine Saturn V rockets, including also Apollo 11. These rockets were later used to launch the unmanned Skylab missions. However, before manned missions took place, more than six years of development and testing of spacecraft and launch vehicles were needed before the first manned missions could be realised. Test flights of the Saturn I launcher began in October 1961 and continued until September 1964. Three subsequent [kolejne] Saturn I launchers carried standard models of the Apollo Command Module.

The unmanned missions officially named 'Apollo' were followed by a sequential [tu: kolejny] number such as the Apollo 4, Apollo 5, and Apollo 6 missions. Apollo 4 was the first unmanned test flight of the Command Module (CSM) Saturn V launch vehicle, it was launched November 9, 1967, and showed many flaws [wad] in the system; among other things, extreme noise and vibration during launch. This launch showed that additional protective measures were needed to protect structures in the immediate vicinity [sąsiedztwie], however the mission was a major success, demonstrating the Command Module's heat shield's ability to survive [przetrwać] re-entry using the Service Module's engine to re-enter the atmosphere at higher speeds than the normal re-entry speed. Apollo 5 was the first unmanned test flight of the Lunar Module (LM) in the Earth orbit, launched on January 22, 1968, using a Saturn IB rocket. The LM engines were successfully tested on this flight, although a bug in the computer software shortened one test, including a flight test of the engine in 'abort mode' [trybie przerwania], when the ascent engine [silnik wznoszenia] was fired simultaneously with the ejection of the previous rocket stage.

 

The Apollo 6 mission was the last unmanned Saturn V flight and it was launched on April 4, 1968, but unexpected vibrations caused the two second-stage engines to shut down too early and the Saturn rocket's third-stage to re-ignite for the lunar orbit. In this situation the service module engine was used to lift the craft into a higher Earth orbit. However, this mission was deemed [uznana] successful enough to send humans on the next Saturn V flight, as technical corrections were made to eliminate vibration problems.

 

■ Apollo manned missions

The manned missions carried three astronauts; a flight commander (CDR), a command module pilot (CMP) and a lunar module pilot (LMP). Apart to carrying out all decisions, the commander was the primary pilot of both spacecrafts (if he was present) and was the first to leave the LM for the surface of the Moon. The CMP acted as navigator, usually doing pre-docking with the LM and remained [pozostawał] on the command module while the other astronauts stayed on the LM. The LMP acted as the engineer officer, monitoring the systems of both spacecraft.

Apollo 7, launched on October 11, 1968, was the program's first test of the Apollo spacecraft in a manned flight with a crew of three astronauts. The purpose of the mission was to test procedures and ground infrastructure in a manned flight and to demonstrate the Apollo's ability to conduct a rendezvous with another object in orbit. During the 11-day flight, all the main objectives of the mission were accomplished and all planned tests were performed.

Between December 21, 1968 and May 18, 1969, NASA planned to launch three manned test and practice missions using a Saturn V launch vehicle and a complete spacecraft, including the LM. But in the summer of 1968, it became apparent [oczywiste] that a fully functional LM would not be available in time for the Apollo 8 launch. So, instead of wasting the Saturn V on another simple orbital mission and sending the crew for the Apollo 9's second LM orbital test, NASA decided to orbit the Moon in the CSM on Apollo 8 and it turned out [okazało się] that the date fell during the Christmas time. The original idea for this change came from George Low, the Apollo Spacecraft Program office manager and the mission was dubbed 'Christmas on the lunar orbit'. While it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response [odpowiedź] to Soviet attempts to fly their piloted Zond spacecraft around the Moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case. NASA management was aware of this vehicle's flights, but the timings of the Zond missions did not match those of the Apollo 8 mission. The decision to go ahead with Apollo 8 was based primarily on the LM schedule, not the fear that the Soviets would defeat the Americans on their way to the Moon.

 

That flight was followed by the LM's first manned orbital flight on Apollo 9, the third manned mission of the Apollo program and the second expedition to orbit the Earth. During the orbital flight, the crew of the spacecraft conducted [przeprowadzili] for the first time tests of the LM (Lunar Module) during an autonomous flight and in a configuration predicted [przewidzianej] for a flight to the Moon (with the Apollo spacecraft). The Apollo 9 mission crew consisted of the commander James McDivitt, the Command Module pilot David Scott and the LM lunar lander pilot Russell Schweickart.

 

The Apollo 10 mission was the fourth manned mission of the Apollo program and the third spacecraft's mission into the lunar orbit. It was the last experimental flight, which was already a general test before the final landing of a man on the Moon. For the first time in a lunar orbit mission, the Lunar Module, which had previously been tested only in the Earth orbit, was taken into the lunar orbit, there was also first live television broadcast from space on a manned mission. During Apollo 10's return to the Earth, the fastest speed ever reached by man relative to the Earth was reached – 39,879 km/h. The crew of the Apollo 10 mission consisted of: Thomas Stafford – the commander, the Command Module pilot – John Young and the LM lunar lander pilot – Eugene Cernan. Apollo 10 entered the orbit around the Moon on May 21, 1969. A day later, on May 22, the Lunar Module called “Snoopy” (with astronauts Stafford and Cernan) separated from the Command Module called “Charlie Brown”. During the solo flight, the LM module's landing approach procedures were tested. The vehicle with the astronauts lowered its orbit to an altitude of about 14 km from the lunar surface, and then connected again with the module in which John Young remained. During the flight, the surface of the Silver Globe was photographed in search of landing sites for the next missions of the Apollo Program.

 

And finally, the Apollo 11 mission followed, the main target of which was the first landing of a man on the Moon. The launch took place on July 16, 1969 from the Canaveral Space Center (at that time: Cape Kennedy). After circling the Earth, Apollo 11 set off for the route of 384,400 km but before setting off to the Moon the astronauts had to rotate the Lunar Module of 180° and reattach [ponownie przymocować] it. After that operation the Lunar Module was at the head of the whole spacecraft, because previously it had been under the crew module. After three days of the journey, Apollo 11 entered the Moon orbit and then Armstrong and Aldrin got into the Lunar Module, detached it from the main spacecraft and the historic landing began. The astronauts landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969 and soon Neil Armstrong sent the historic message to Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston: 'The Eagle has landed!' July 21, 1969 at At 2:56 UTC, Armstrong descended [zszedł po] the ladder and set foot on the dust-covered surface of the Silver Globe and said the words that also made history: 'It's one small step for a man, but one giant leap for mankind.'

 

Then Edvin Aldrin descended the ladder and the two astronauts conducted scientific research, put in the American flag and collected 21.7 kilograms of rocks, sand and dust. The samples brought back by Apollo 11 were collected in four phases. After descending to the surface of the Silver Globe, Armstrong collected several pieces of rock in a plastic bag. These 'reserve samples' provided some lunar material in case the expedition had to be ceased [przerwane] abruptly and returned to Earth prematurely [przedwcześnie]. A little later, he shoveled [zebrał łopatką] more lunar soil into a metal container. Then he collected the necessary samples, which consisted of objects carefully selected on the basis of their geological values. Armstrong recorded and photographed the location and position of these minerals, and finally extracted samples with special tools from beneath the lunar surface. After the Apollo 11 splashdown, those samples were flown by two helicopters to Johnson Island, then by two planes to Houston, and finally by car to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL). Initial research was conducted by a special Preliminary Research Team (PET) at the Human Space Flight Center in Houston, Texas. The samples were made available to 106 scientists in the United States and 36 researchers in eight other countries. The astronauts also placed a plaque on the Moon which read: “This is where people from the planet Earth set foot on the Moon for the first time, July 1969. We come in peace for the good of all mankind”.

After 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, the astronauts returned to the Command Module in which Michael Collins was waiting for them. The return journey was smooth and on July 24, 1969, Apollo 11 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean 1,460 km southwest of the Hawaiian Islands and 21 km from the waiting aircraft carrier USS Hornet. Due to the deteriorating [pogarszającej się] weather, the landing site was moved of 400 km. That operation, however, had a bit different course than the previous flights because the astronauts had to be subjected to biological quarantine. Therefore, the scuba divers [nurkowie] had to drop from the helicopter to the crew special biological suits and immediately after changing into them, they were lifted to the helicopter cabin. At the same time, the cabin was disinfected. After being transferred to the aircraft carrier “Hornet”, the selenonauts went to a special quarantine cabin (Mobile Quarantaine Facility – MQF) and were transported to the Hawaiian Islands. At Fort Island, the container was loaded aboard a C-141 which delivered the crew to Ellington Air Force Base, Texas, where they moved into a quarantine facility. The quarantine lasted until August 11 and, as predicted, gave a completely negative result.

 

The Apollo 12 mission was the sixth manned mission of the Apollo program and the second to land humans on the Moon and was commanded by Charles Conrad. The launch of the Saturn V rocket for this mission took place on November 14, 1969, four months after the Apollo 11 mission. During the launch, due to lightning discharges, there were problems with the supply of electricity, but the automatic power recovery system was activated and the mission could be continued.

The landing site was the lunar Ocean of Storms. The great achievement [osiągnięciem] of this mission was the precise landing of the Lunar Module; Conrad and Bean took over the steering at the attitude of 110m and softly landed the LM less than 250m from the computer programmed coordinates and 163m from the spacecraft ‘Surveyor 3” which landed there two and a half years earlier.

During their stay on the Moon the astronauts removed the television camera and several other details from the Surveyor 3 and brought them back to the Earth. Charles Conrad and the lunar module pilot Alan LaVern Bean spent one day and seven hours on the lunar surface, while the pilot Richard Gordon remained in the Command Module in the lunar orbit. The mission ended with the splashdown in the Pacific on November 24, 1969.

 

The Apollo 13 mission was the third mission of the Apollo program with a planned landing of humans on the lunar surface, however, its course was dramatic but ended happily. The spacecraft was launched on April 11, 1970 at 19:13 UTC. The flight was commanded by James A. Lovell; the Command Module pilot was John L. Swigert and the Lunar Module pilot was Fred W. Haise. Swigert substituted the original Command Module pilot Thomas K. Mattingly, who was eliminated from the mission by doctors because of the concerns [obaw] that he had contracted rubella [różyczkę]. Later it turned out that Mattingly did not contract rubella, however he provided significant assistance to the ground controllers during the fight to bring the Apollo crew back to Earth.

The drama of events began when, after two days of the journey to the Moon, the service module exploded due to damage that took place before on Earth, causing the loss of two oxygen tanks, depriving [pozbawiając] the Command Module of electrical power on the route to the Moon and back to the Earth's atmosphere. Of course, in this situation landing on the Moon was out of question, but the aim to the ground service was to save the crew and bringing them safely back to Earth. The service module was, among other things, a power plant (due to fuel cells) and the Command Module's battery power supply was scheduled [tu: przeznaczony] to run for the last few hours while reentering the atmosphere, after the service module was ejected, because it was not designed to go through the Earth's atmosphere.

After the liquid oxygen tank had exploded, the astronauts left the Command Module and moved to the Lunar Module with the intention of returning to the Command Module a few hours before landing. Before leaving the Command Module, all electrical equipment was turned off to spare [aby oszczędzić] electrical power for reentry and the splashdown in the Pacific. The Lunar Module was designed to stay in it only for more than a few hours, however, not for the three astronauts involved in the mission, but only for the two who will eventually land on the lunar surface. Despite the difficulties caused by the shortage of electricity and the resulting numerous consequences, confined space and problems associated with the removal of carbon dioxide and the lack of drinking water, the crew safely returned to Earth on April 17, 1970. During those dramatic events, people in the whole world were literally stuck in front of TV screens, watching the fight for the lives of the astronauts, and based on those events a very good film was made describing that extraordinary mission.

 

The Apollo 14 mission was the third manned mission in which two astronauts descended to the lunar surface. The crew of this mission were the commander: Alan B. Shepard and Stuart A. Roosa and Edgar D. Mitchell. The failure of Apollo 13 caused the postponement of the launch of the next mission, and after investigating [zbadaniu] and determining [ustaleniu] the reasons for the failure a number of design changes were made. Three tanks with 150 kg of oxygen were added, the propulsion section was equipped with an additional battery bank with a capacity of 400 Ah, and there was a reserve of 18 kg of water for the crew in case of fuel cell failure. Apollo 14 launched on January 31, 1971 after an unscheduled 40-minute countdown stoppage [zatrzymanie odliczania] due to the deteriorating weather, the crew had serious problems during the docking of the Commanding Module with the Lunar Module, and they were able to do it at the sixth attempt to connect the vehicles. During the journey to the Moon were also made two trajectory corrections. However the mission at the end was sucessful and 42 kg of lunar soil samples were collected. The astronauts stayed outside the LM lander for more than nine hours during their lunar walks.

Shepard and Mitchell, moving on the Moon for the first time, used the MET lunar rover specially constructed for this Apollo mission, due to which they could transport, among others, scientific research equipment. However, the course of this expedition was not without problems because after separation in the lunar orbit, the LM's navigation computer received the command of the emergency cease [przerwanie w trybie awaryjnym] of landing; the cause of which was a short circuit [zwarcie] in one of the switches. That minor fault could made impossible to continue the mission. If the astronauts started the approach and started the engine, the computer would cease the landing and send them back to the lunar orbit. However, due to the development of an appropriate algorithm, the problem was solved. During the landing approach, the lander's radar refused to cooperate, but this problem was also successfully resolved and the LM landed on the lunar surface only 53 meters from the target.

“Antares”; as the lander was called, was the first manned object to land on the highlands of the Moon in order to gain valuable information from areas where fragments from deeper layers of the crust [skorupy] were expected to be found. However, the area where the LM landed turned out to be more uneven than previously assumed [przypuszczano] based on the photographs of the terrain, so the astronauts had trouble setting up the science equipment, because the chosen place was sloping [pochyłe], but this obstacle was overcome and all the science instruments were deployed [rozmieszczone]. The return capsule splashed down in the Pacific about 1,250 kilometers south of Samoa and seven kilometers from the salvage ship USS New Orleans.

Apollo 15 was the fourth mission to land astronauts on the lunar surface on July 30, 1971. This mission was crewed by the commander David R. Scott, James B. Irwin and Alfred M. Worden. During the expedition, 77 kg of lunar soil samples were collected. The astronauts stayed outside the LM lander for more than 18 hours during their lunar exits. Scott and Irwin for the first time used a specially constructed for the purpose of exploring the Moon surface Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), which constructor was the Polish engineer Mieczysław Bekker. For this mission, NASA management made the bold decision to fill up the Saturn V rocket to its limits during the last three Apollo missions. After reducing the launch vehicle's fuel reserve and slightly lowering the parking orbit, Apollo 15 was crammed [wypełniony po brzegi] with two additional tons of equipment while modifying the F-engines 1 to squeeze [wycisnąć] as much power out of them as possible. The weight of the additional load was precisely calculated, almost to the gram, and the LRV was placed on the LM landing stage.

The countdown before the start and the start itself went smoothly. As planned, Apollo 15 was placed on the lunar trajectory (TLI), the spacecraft was separated and docked with the lander. Shortly thereafter, astronauts separated the S-IVB/IU and headed it on a collision course with the Moon. The impact [uderzenie] on the Moon occurred 183 km northeast of the Apollo 14 landing site and 356 km northeast of the Apollo 12 landing site, and thus provided information about the structure of the Moon to a depth of 50-100 km. However, this time the mission didn’t do without [nie obyła się bez] technical problems because soon after docking, on-board instruments detected a short circuit in the SPS engine control system installation, but the modified SPS engine firing procedure, tested during the second trajectory correction, allowed the mission to continue.

The SIM cover was ejected 4.5 hours before entering the lunar orbit and the SIM instruments were set in motion. After another two hours, the spacecraft made an orbital entry maneuver for the landing approach, but due to the high inclination [nachylenie] of the orbit to the equator, the spacecraft's flight path ran over the strongest lunar mascons [maskonami], which resulted in much faster than expected orbital descent [zniżenie]. The correction made by Apollo's RCS thrusters [silniki odrzutowe] changed the orbital altitude from 108.3 km x 17.8 km to 111.7 km x 16.3 km. Also, the separation of Apollo and the lander was delayed by 25 minutes at an altitude of only sixteen kilometers above the lunar surface. After 12 minutes and 20 seconds, the LM dubbed “Falcon” settled softly on the Moon’s surface. During the descent, the astronauts had to strain [wytężać] their eyes to find distinctive [charakterystyczne] landing landmarks and changed the landing site several times, steering the lander to stay close to the northern edge of the only structure they recognised [rozpoznawali] – Rima Hadley; a wide canyon fissure [szczelinę] eleven kilometers away from the 5400 meter high peak of Mons Hadley.

They flew the last eighty meters almost blind in clouds of lunar dust, and the LM lander began to lean backwards and to its right side after landing; it turned out soon that two supports of the vehicle had sunk into the ground just at the edge of a small crater.

After the separation, the Apollo spacecraft went into the lunar orbit with parameters of 120.8 x 101.5 km. After landing, the mission commander's observations from the deck of the LM allowed to settle the exact location of it; it turned out that it was located 550 m northeast of the planned landing site. Even though the crew started to fulifil the tasks provided [tu: przewidziane] for by the mission plan, and after the leaving of the lunar surface of the LM and due to the energy from the Rover's batteries, it was possible for the first time to broadcast the launch of the lander on television.

Not less important than the work done on the lunar surface were important research and scientific observations made by the Command Module pilot; Alfred Worden on its orbit. The Apollo 15 was equipped with instruments, the weight of which was 476 kg. These instruments made it possible to identify certain elements found on the Moon and to determine some general characteristics of the materials that make up its crust. Another instrument; a mass spectrometer on a 6.3 m long boom [wysięgniku], studied the components around the lunar crust, while the high-class camera system was used to obtain [uzyskać] photographs that allowed making accurate [dokładnych] maps of the lunar surface. The photographs covered an area of about three million km², which was eight percent of the whole area. A panoramic camera with a focal length [o ogniskowej] of 600 mm contained a film 12.5 cm wide and 2000 m long. It contained 1650 frames and the photos were of high resolution [rozdzielczości]. One frame covered an area of 27 x 342 km. Along with the cartographic camera, a star camera was set up [ustawiono kamerę gwiazdową] which was set at an angle of 96° to the optical axis [osi optycznej], which enabled photographs of stars being the reference point [punktem odniesienia] for precise determination of the positions of individual points on the lunar surface.

Other instruments on the board of the CMP included a laser altimeter [wysokościomierz] and a gamma ray spectrometer and they detected a higher level of radiation on the far side of the Moon and also found that on average that the level is lower than that of samples taken in the Fra Mauro region. An X-ray spectrometer determined that the highlands contained large amounts of aluminum, especially on the other side of the Moon, and also that the so-called 'seas' are rich in magnesium. Studies done with an alpha particle spectrometer showed that the radon diffusion coefficient [współczynnik dyfuzji radonu] on the Moon is of magnitude three times lower than on the Earth. The stereometric camera took a large number of high-resolution images, which took about 2,000 m of film, while the mapping camera used almost 1,400 m of film. Worden also made some interesting visual observations related to the terrain as well as potential future landing sites. Apollo orbited the Moon for six full Earth days. After returning of Scott and Irvin on the CMP, only an hour before their back route, a small satellite of the Moon was launched from it. This sub-satellite was placed in a 141 x 102.0 km orbit and was expected to function for at least a year. On the CMP's return to Earth, Worden made a 39-minute spacewalk and the crew made one trajectory correction. Separation of the CM and SM and reentry into the atmosphere went according to plan, but due to the failure of one of the main parachutes, the launch was a bit 'harder'. Apollo 15 splashed down about 1.9 km from the designated point, 530 km north of Hawaii and 9 km from the rescue ship.

 

The Apollo 16 mission was the fifth manned mission to land astronauts on the lunar surface and was the last but one [przedostatnią] mission of the NASA's Apollo program. The crew consisted of John Young (the commander), Thomas Mattingly and Charles Duke. The mission launched without delay and left the Earth orbit during the second orbiting. The first launch of the third stage auxiliary engines of the APS (Auxiliary Propulsion System) rocket, aimed at directing the S-IVB stage on a collision course with the Moon, took place as planned. The impact with the Moon occurred at 75 hours 8 minutes of the flight, about 320 km northeast of the designated [tu: planowanego] target. However, after arrival in the lunar orbit and separation of the Apollo spacecraft from the LM, there were disruptions [zakłócenia] in the backup control system which were responsible for the deflection [wychylenie] of the SPS engine nozzles [dysz]. This prevented [wstrzymało] the landing of the LM, which was scheduled to take place during the thirteenth orbit of the Moon.

Apollo 16 and the lander remained in orbit, maintaining a fixed [ustaloną] position relative to each other. Meanwhile, the flight control and the Command Module pilot were analysing the problem. Finally, they decided to continue the mission but to limit the use of the SPS engine, they also decided to shorten the mission by one day. During the fifteenth lap, the spacecraft was put into a circular orbit, and during the sixteenth one, the landing procedure began. The LM landed on the lunar surface in the Descartes crater region, just 212 m northwest of the designated point. While Young and Duke were working on the lunar surface, Ken Mattingly, in the lunar orbit, was carrying out an intensive science program using the set of SIM instruments. During 64 orbits he performed all planned scientific experiments and tasks.

Launch from the lunar surface and docking to the command module went smoothly. Four hours and 19 minutes before TEI (Trans-Earth Injection); after leaving the lunar orbit and starting to return to the Earth, a sub-satellite was placed in the lunar orbit. However, due to problems with the SPS engine, the subsatellite orbited the Moon at a low altitude and quickly dropped on the lunar surface, while, according to the mission program, it was supposed to stay in orbit for about 12 months. To minimise the necessary time changes to the re-entry procedure schedule, the GET was re-updated after the TEI manoeuvre, moving the mission clock forward by 24 hours 43 minutes and 12 seconds. The Apollo 16 capsule splashed down 5.6 km from its designated [ustalonego] target and 5 km from the rescue ship. The crew was on board the ship 37 minutes after launching.

 

Apollo 17 was the last Apollo mission to the Moon, the Apollo spacecraft was launched on December 7, 1972, and the mission commander Eugene Cernan was also the last man to leave the lunar surface. The crew consisted of the commander; Eugene A. Cernan CDR, the Command Module Pilot; Ronald E. Evans and the Lunar Module pilot; Harrison H. Schmitt. Apollo 17 launched on December 7, 1972 at 5:33 UTC after an unscheduled countdown breaks of 2 hours and 40 minutes. It was the only night launch of the Saturn V and many people rented cruise ships to see it. The spacecraft was launched into a parking orbit with parameters of 167.2 × 166.7 km. During the third lap around the Earth, over the Atlantic, the crew carried out the TLI maneuver (putting the spacecraft on the trajectory of the flight towards the Moon). Apollo separated from the S-IVB/IU/LM after three hours and 42 minutes of flight. After another fifteen minutes of flight, Apollo 17 connected with the LM but during docking there were problems with the docking system lock. Finally, at 4 hours and 45 minutes of the flight, the Apollo+LM separated from the S-IVB stage, which was put on a collision trajectory with the Moon. The impact with the surface occurred at 86 hours 59 minutes 42 seconds of the flight. The shock was recorded by devices left on the Moon by the previous missions of Apollo. Only one trajectory correction was made during the flight towards the Moon.

At 65-th hour of flight, the GET time was updated, thus compensating for the launch delay; the clock was moved forward 2 hours and 40 minutes. Eighty-six hours after launch, Apollo 17 entered the lunar orbit, and four hours later the Command Module pilot started the engine and began its descent to the lunar surface. For the last time in the Apollo program, the astronauts went to the lander and performed the final landing maneuvers. The LM landed in a place 200 meters from the designated target. Four hours later, Cernan and Schmitt stepped onto the lunar surface in the Taurus-Littrow Valley. During their stay they did three descents (EVAs) on its surface.

During the first descent, the astronauts stayed outside the lander for 7 hours 11 minutes 53 seconds. The astronauts set up a flag, took a number of photos, set up the ALSEP equipment (The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package) end a cosmic ray particle detector. After nearly five hours, they travelled by the lunar vehicle to the Steno Crater, a 13-minute drive away, and then they visited the Emory Crater, but due to the delay resulting from too much work with the ALSEP, the plan was changed. At the end of the EVA (Extra-vehicular activity), the astronauts set up the equipment to measure the electrical properties of the ground and took panoramic photos of the area. After resting in the lander, there was a second descent and then Cernan and Schmitt (who was a geologist) spent 7 hours 36 minutes and 56 seconds outside the lander (the longest walk on the lunar surface). As scheduled, the astronauts visited Station 2 (the Nansen Crater), Station 3 (the Lara Crater), Station 4 (the Shorty Crater) and Station 5 (the Camelot Crater), on the way, they installed three explosives in the lunar crust. At Station 4 they found orange-coloured material believed to be of volcanic origin. At the end of the walk, Schmitt checked the setting and leveling of the gravimeter [miernik grawitacji]. The distance travelled during that spacewalk No 2 was 20.4 km. It was the furthest distance from the LM that astronauts had reached during the whole Apollo Program – 7.6 kilometers from the lander.

After returning and a fifteen-hour rest, the astronauts made their last foray [wypad] to the lunar surface. After collecting more samples and taking pictures, they headed towards the Wessex Cleft and then towards the Sculptured Hills. Their route continued through the Van Serg crater, where they spent nearly an hour doing geological research. They visited all planned stations, made photographic documentation and collected soil samples. During the mission, 110.52 kg of samples of the lunar ground were collected, the astronauts spent 3 days, 2 hours 59 minutes and 40 seconds on the surface of the Moon and travelled with the Lunar Roving Vehicle over 35 kilometers. During their stay on the Moon, they made three walks (EVA) with a total time of 22 hours 3 minutes and 57 seconds.

After 75 hours, the astronauts left the Moon. As planned, the rendezvous, docking, rejection of the LM launch stages and its reorbiting went smoothly. Docking took place on the eighth day of the mission. The Apollo spacecraft remained in the lunar orbit for almost two more days. The lander's launch stage hit the lunar surface at 193 hours 17 minutes 21 seconds into the flight. The impact was recorded by geophones left behind by previous Apollo missions. During the 75th lunar orbit, the crew performed the TEI maneuver, steering the craft on a return trajectory to Earth. On the return flight, the Command Module pilot walked outside the Apollo spacecraft and he made the trip to SIM and back three times, transferring the ALSEP radar and videos from the mapping camera and panorama camera to the spacecraft’s cabin. During the back journey only one trajectory correction was made before entering the Earth's atmosphere. The Apollo 17 CM splashed down on December 19, 1972, 1.9 km from the target and 6.5 km from the rescue ship from which the crew was picked up by a helicopter.

 

■ Program overall evaluation [ocena ogólna]

 Forty-one astronauts were selected for the Apollo Space Program, twelve of them walked on the lunar surface, and six of them drove on the Moon in the Lunar Rover. The nine Apollo missions to the Moon took place between December 1968 and December 1972. Since that time any other human has gone beyond the low Earth orbit. During those missions there was an obligatory rule that in most cases only one person in the Mission Control in Houston would communicate directly with the flight crew; usually it was another astronaut who would be able to understand in a best way the situation in the spacecraft and communicate with the crew as accurately as possible.

A very valuable 'loot' of the Apollo missions were samples brought from the Moon. The most famous of the recovered Moon rocks was the Genesis Rock, recovered by astronauts James Irwin and David Scott during the Apollo 15 mission. This rock, called anorthosite [anortozytem], is composed almost entirely of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral [minerału skaleniowego] anorthite [anortytu] and is thought to be representative of the Moon’s mountain crust.

Rocks collected from the Moon are very old, compared to rocks found on Earth, and when they were measured by radiometric dating techniques, their age range from about 3.2 billion years for basalt samples to about 4. 6 billion years in the case of mountain crust samples. A geochemical component called KREEP which was found out in the Moon has no known equivalent on Earth. These and other samples led scientists to conclude that the outer crust of the Moon was once completely molten [stopiona].

Almost all rocks show traces of impact processes [tu: następstw uderzenia]. Some of the samples brought back the Earth come from alloys [stopów] formed from melted materials near the impact crater. The analysis of the composition of lunar samples supports the hypothesis that the Moon was formed as a result of a giant collision of a large astronomical body with the Earth.

The costs of the Apollo Program were, of course, gigantic and the final cost of the Apollo project was reported to Congress as $25.4 billion in 1973. It consumed most of NASA's budget during the development of the whole Program. In 1966, for example, it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA's total $5.2 billion budget. After the success of the Apollo Program, both NASA and their major contractors explored several post-lunar applications [zastosowań] of the equipement used in the Apollo Program. However, of all the plans, only two were realised: the Skylab space station and the Apollo-Soyuz test project.

Skylab's hull was built from the second module of the Saturn IB and the station was equipped with the Apollo telescope equipment, based on the Lunar Module. Three station crews were carried into orbit by the Saturn IB in the CSM, but the station itself was launched with a modified Saturn V. The last Skylab crew left the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979, at which point it became the oldest operational Apollo-Saturn component.

 A very important effect of the Apollo Program is the cultural impact [tu: wpływ] it had on the world. The crew of Apollo 8, the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon, sent television pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth and during the transmission they read the creation story from the biblical Book of Genesis on Christmas Eve in 1968. It had probably been the most watched program up to that time on television. The mission provided an inspiring end for the year 1968, which was very bad for the United States, because it was marked by Vietnam War protests, race riots, and the assassinations of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King and Senator Robert Kennedy.

One of the legacies [spuścizn] of the Apollo program has been the view of the Earth as a fragile little planet, captured in photographs taken by astronauts on lunar missions. The most famous one taken by Apollo 17 astronauts is called The Blue Marble. Those photos have motivated many people around the world to take an ecological view of the planet Earth. Many astronauts after their flights confirmed [potwierdzili] the profound [głęboki] impact of their seeing the Earth from space that has had on them. The program also achieved one of President Kennedy's goals, which was to defeat the Soviet Union in the space race by an unique and significant achievement, thus demonstrating the superiority of the capitalist, free-market system represented by the US, and strengthening the image of the US as the world's largest power.

Source: NASA Facts and Wikipedia

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 MEMORY AND ITS FUNCTIONING

 

Memory is the ability to store and reproduce information and is the basic function of an organism which is encoded in the DNA genetic code [zapisaną w kodzie genetycznym]. The memory of our brains is recorded and stored in the gray cells of the cerebral cortex [kory mózgowej] in the form of protein particles called engrams [engramami]. The entire central nervous system (CNS) is involved in the reception, processing and storage of information. Some of this information is stored as long-term memory in the form of protein engrams. On the other hand, each information reaching the CNS causes numerous effector reactions in a huge neural network and activates sometimes very distant neurons and goes first to working (short-term) memory. Some of this information, unnecessary for brain processes, is excreted [wydalana] or extinguished [wygaszana] by various neuronal systems, but also in the sleep phase, during which brain cleansing processes [procesy oczyszczania] take place.

Memory is a heterogeneous phenomenon [zjawiskiem niejednorodnym] and has not been fully explored [zbadana], or at least it is not 100% sure how it works. However, it can be assumed that there are two basic types of memory; working and long-lasting; in other words, the concept of working memory (short-term memory) and the concept of storage memory.

 

■ Types of memory

 

There are a large number of features and types of memory, and these features are often ambiguous and overlap. The most important types of memory are:

- Autobiographical memory, which collects information from personal life.

- Declarative memory, i.e. stored information about the surrounding world.

- Long-term memory (see below).

- Episodic memory, which stores various single life events.

- 'Flash' memory, which stores important autobiographical events in the form of 'flashes'; e.g., what a person was doing at the time of some very important event in the world.

- Short-term memory (see below).

- Mechanical memory; that is, memorising some material without reflecting on it.

- Procedural memory; i.e. a long-term process of information processing.

- Semantic memory; that is, storing some generalisations, rules, laws, categories, etc.

 

The anatomy and physiology of memory is very complex, it includes the cerebral cortex, phylogenetically [filogenetycznie] old and new, brain centers and the most important creation, related to memory processing and storage, which is a large, symmetrically arranged group of cells called the hippocampus [hipokampem], therefore memory does not have one place in the brain. It has been known for a long time that memory impairment [upośledzenie] does not play a role in the location of lesions [zmian komórkowych], however, numerous studies conducted during open-brain surgery have only roughly identified certain regions directly related to memory processing and storage, but the functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission [emisja pozytonów] tomography studies have shown at last the activity in the area of ​​the prefrontal cortex, as well as in the hippocampus, temporal lobe [płacie skroniowym], cingulate gyrus [zakręcie obręczy] and even in the cerebellum [w móżdżku] (see brain atlas).

It is known that two lobes are of major importance for memory: frontal – in short-term (working) memory [magazynowaniu] and information processing and temporal – in long-term memory in information organisation and storage. The old part of the temporal lobe cortex belonging to the olfactory brain [węchomózgowia] has fundamental importance in the formation of memory, in which the main role is played by the hippocampus, which has its connections with the entire limbic system [układem limbicznym] and the new cerebral cortex by the vault and mammary bodies [ciała suteczkowate]. It is a “memory factory” and a central place in the entire process of organising memory, related to all brain centers.

Short-term (working) memory is the ability to remember what is currently perceived by the senses. It is the most unstable and most often subject to disturbances [ulegająca zaburzeniom] in various diseases or under the influence of other strong stimuli [bodźców]. In the formation of short-term memory, the basic role is played by electrical impulses conducted by the nerves and converted into neurotransmitters [neuroprzekaźniki], which transmit the impulses to the next neuron. This type of memory enables us to learn and assimilate new information, leads to processing and formation of long-term memory. Such processing takes place in the hippocampus and from there the memory is transferred in the form of protein engrams [engramów białkowych] to the appropriate cortical [korowe] centers where it is stored.

Long-term memory arises from the processing of fresh memory in the hippocampus and is encoded in various cortical centers of the frontal lobe [płata czołowego], temporal [skroniowego] (auditory memory), parietal [ciemieniowego] (sensory memory) and occipital [potylicznego] (visual memory). This type of memory spread over [rozłożony na] a large area of ​​the cerebral cortex is more resistant to disturbances than short-term memory. Although long-term memory has a huge capacity [pojemność], access to it is through working memory is quite difficult, because working memory accepts only what it does want to fit into it. Long-term memory is divided into two different types; declarative and procedural memory. Declarative memory ('I know that') is divided into semantic memory – descriptive, concerning words and names ('I know what it is') and episodic memory – storing events ('I know what and when'). Procedural memory, in turn, is divided into conscious [świadomą ] memory – concerning consciously performed learned activities, also called working memory.

Working memory is a higher level of conscious procedural memory and is responsible for the ability to plan, solve problems and make decisions. Procedural memory is responsible for: 'I know how to do it'. In addition, there are many types of selective memory associated with particular senses [poszczególnymi zmysłami]; i.e. olfactory [węchowym], visual, auditory [słuchowym], taste [smakowym], tactile [dotykowym], pain and feeling ones. 

Working memory is the ability to remember information for a short period of time and manipulate that information, and the equivalent of human memory is RAM in a computer. This memory plays an essential role in everyday use of the brain (e.g. in cognitive functions [funkcjach poznawczych], in observational or adaptive processes and conscious perception of the world around us. However, some researchers also divide this type of memory into active and passive – and it is probably correct, because the permanent storage [trwałe przechowywanie] of information is related to chemical and structural changes in the brain, but this process is not completely explained.

The mechanism of memory is such way that when a stimulus is received, a mental connection is created, then the information is sent to working (short-term) memory and remains in it for about 30 seconds, but only this information which is interesting, important or that reminds us of something is selected from this information. When something distracts us [coś nas rozproszy] during this time, such information can not be properly 'stored' and then we can not find it later. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, which depends not on the total amount of information, but on the number of separate, completed [skończonych] parts. On the other hand, long-term memory stores information acquired during learning (first of all due to repetitions) and obtained as a result of life experiences. This type of memory is the source of all human knowledge and skills and is under the supervision of the right hemisphere of the brain. The capacity of this memory is huge and practically unlimited. Information stored for some time in short-term memory can transform into long-term memory, provided that nothing disturbs the process of storing some information in it, and the process of converting [przekształcania] short-term memory into long-term memory is called consolidation.

 

■ Memory and the role of learning habits

 

Therefore, what was written above, the foundation [podstawą] of effective learning are repetitions, but done with the active participation of the mind and imagination, and information should be repeated with a certain frequency: after an hour, after a day, after a week, after a month, and even after six months or a year from the moment when it was stored in long-term memory. Research on learning has shown that a molecule [cząsteczka] called CREB in our brain is responsible for effective learning. Fortunately, the CREB molecule lives longer than the anti-CREB, so when a certain stimulus occurs many times through repetition, the amount of CREB molecules in the brain is higher and the information stays in memory permanently [na stałe]. Although the results of the above studies have appeared quite recently, even the ancient Romans already knew that repetitions is the best way to learn.

That is why the role of habit [nawyku] in learning is so important, because only by constant habits we are able to perform certain repetitions, and so, if, for example, we learn a foreign language, it is very important to acquire a permanent habit of learning it, above all through constant hours of study, and also to develop an appropriate technique of repetition and use this technique that is good for us regularly. Of course, good habits also apply to other types of learning; such as learning some craft [rzemiosła artystycznego], which we learn best by some good habit; for example, appropriate working conditions, meal breaks, coffee breaks, etc.

Another important element of learning are emotions, which in certain situations can be an elementary factor in the process of remembering; e.g. when learning a new skill. Our memory is very eager [chętna] to store information related to emotions, i.e. signals coming from our senses. The more senses we engage in the process of remembering, the more effective this process will be. However, the role of emotions in the process of remembering is effective only in relation to some aspects of learning, and learning a new skill or doing a new job is the best example of this.

In the working (short-term) memory system, the most important element is the central executive system, which performs control and regulatory functions in relation to three subsystems: the visual-spatial diagram [wzrokowo-przestrzenny], the episodic buffer [bufor epizodyczny] and the phonological loop [pętla fonologiczna]. This system receives information from various sensory elements and stores it for a short time needed to perform some specific task. The phonological loop consists of a phonological store [magazynu] that stores speech sounds, and an articulation control system that allows information to be refreshed [odświeżanych] by repetitions, due to which this loop facilitates [ułatwia] language learning, for example.The refreshed information goes back to the phonological store, which also receives information from sensory and long-term memory. Since this articulation is a real-time process, the capacity of the phonological store does not depend on the number of elements, but is only time-limited and this time is 1.5-2 seconds without refreshing.

Anatomically, the phonological loop is a specialised auditory-vocal [słuchowo-głosowy] sensorimotor neural pathway [szlak nerwowy] that connects the posterior temporal regions with the inferior parietal lobe [płatem ciemieniowym] and the ventrolateral [brzusznoboczną] prefrontal cortex [korą przedczołową]. More specifically, the phonological storehouse is located in the left supramarginal gyrus [zakrętem nadbrzeżnym] of the brain, and the articulatory control system is located in Broca's area (see brain atlas).

 

■ Brain processes affecting memory

 

Numerous studies have confirmed the functional relationship between Wernicke's areas (which is responsible fior mechanisms of understanding the meaning of individual words) and Broca's areas (responsible for generating movements that enable speech skill – combining sounds into words and sentences) and the supramarginal gyrus in language processing, and these studies have also located networks responsible for short-term verbal memory of names in the temporoparietal [skroniowo-ciemieniowych] and inferior frontal gyrus areas. The visuospatial [wzrokowo-przestrzenny] diagram, in turn, stores visual and spatial information from iconic memory or long-term memory storage and has a capacity of 3-4 memory items [elementów pamięciowych]. On the other hand, the episodic buffer temporarily stores similar but different information, creates the necessary context for evaluating new information and consequently speeds up [w efekcie przyspiesza] the decision-making processes in the mind. In this way, the system allows one to collect and operate information necessary to perform complex activities and processes; such as chronological ordering, spatial planning, reasoning [rozumowanie], understanding the phenomena [zjawiska] around us, learning and many others.

In the assessment of working memory dysfunction very helpful are psychometric tests; such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test which is examining visual working memory. During those tests, it was proven that neurotransmitter systems [układy neuroprzekaźnikowe] are essential for the functioning of the working memory system; especially the dopaminergic [dopaminergiczny] system, which gives the belief that mental illnesses (often imperceptible [niedostrzegalne] at first glance) have a huge impact on the functioning of memory and affect language development disorders in children and adolescents [młodzieży]. In addition, numerous studies indicate that the dysfunction of working memory (especially the central executive system and attentional mechanisms [mechanizmy uwagowe]) are affected [są dotknięte, poszkodowane] by neurodegenerative [neurodegeneracyjne] diseases; such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. Thus, the working memory system is involved in the language learning process at various levels; not only phonological, but also semantic, syntactic [syntaktyczny] and lexical.

In the context of what is written above, it is very interesting that from an evolutionary point of view, the ability to perceive sounds is older than the ability to make them; that is, imitating the sounds of human speech is easier than imitating facial expressions [ekspresji mimicznej], because when people (also great apes [małpy człekokształtne]) hear their own voice, this indicates additional applications of the phonological loop mechanism [pętli fonologicznej]. Thus, it can be said with certainty that those levels of language that refer to extra-linguistic reality came first; i.e. phonetics, semantics and pragmatics, and only later structural; such as phonology and morphosyntactics [morfosyntaktyka]. What's more; many researchers recognise the neural [neuronalne] (cortical and subcortical) mechanisms of motor control as the basis for syntax and many complex human behaviours. Studies performed by using positron [pozytronowej] emission tomography (PET) revealed the activity of areas homologous to Broca's and Wernicke's areas in the brains of macaques [makaków] during auditory processing. These studies confirm that language arose as a result of a complex adaptive process that required many pre-adaptations at the cortical and subcortical levels, and that in the process of language evolution there was a selection pressure for the development of reciprocal vocalisations [wokalizacji zwrotnych] between a mother and child.   

 

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  ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION IN OFFICES AND COMPANIES

 

A very interesting analysis of the situation in offices and companies after the Covid pandemic in Poland was published by the ONET PREMIUMBUSINESS INSIDER-GOSPODARKA.

The interview was conducted by Mateusz Madejski from Business Insider Polska. Here are extensive excerpts [obszerne fragmenty]:

 

Mateusz Madejski: There has been a lot of talk recently about how companies are losing money due to home office. What is the reason for this?

 

Katarzyna Zawodna-Bijoch, CEO of Skanska's office unit in CEE, answers: For example because younger employees have nobody to learn from. This has been very clear since the lockdowns. After all, young people develop through [rozwijają się poprzez] meetings, interactions and mentoring. There is also an aspect of innovation. People are innovative due to meeting each other, interactions and 'brainstorming'. Of course, sometimes we can focus [skoncentrować się] better at home than in the office, for example, when we are writing something, but when it comes to creative discussions, creating new, innovative things, it seems to me that the office is essential. Numerous studies point to this. Another issue is the attachment to the employer, which is stroger when we are in the office, building bonds, being part of a team. We also cannot underestimate the mental problems that result from isolation. People need interpersonal interactions [relacji interpersonalnych] – and that’s what the office is for.

 

Mateusz Madejski: So employers are returning to offices?

 

Katarzyna Zawodna-Bijoch: They are definitely encouraging their employees to do so more and more. You could say that this encouragement is becoming more and more decisive. At the same time, it is rarely a requirement of the type: 'you have to be in the office five times a week'. More often it is about establishing some framework. And these frameworks should be shaped jointly [tu: ustalane wspólnie] by employees and employers. There are, of course, positions that cannot be performed at home – it is a quite different issue.

 

M.M.: What is the most popular model today?

 

K.Z.-B.: I would say between 2 and 4 days in the office. It is already the standard in corporations. Most often it is 3 days. And people usually say that this formula is optimal for them. The research that we conducted in the summer among office workers from large cities showed that 48% work exclusively [wyłącznie] from the office, 43% in a hybrid model, and 9% from home. A large part of corporate employees today work in some kind of a hybrid model. But the space for hybrid work has to be different.

 

M.M.: What does it mean?

 

K.Z.-B.: The once famous 'open spaces' are becoming a thing of the past. The office is no longer a place where you come to have a desk and a computer. You can actually have that at home. People come to the office to socialise, to talk, to come up with new ideas together, to exchange knowledge, to build relationships. So there is a need for spaces for workshop work, for teamwork, but also spaces for work in separation. We have to remember that everyone needs a slightly different space today to be the 'best version of themselves'.

 

M.M.: So what kind of spaces are needed in offices today?

 

K.Z.-B.: Kitchens, cafeterias, spaces that facilitate integration [ułatwiają integrację] certainly play a big role. But ergonomics and comfort are also important. Space is simply created differently. And the office should be a physical manifestation of the company's culture. It is crucial in an era of still very intense struggle [zacięta walka] for employees – and for keeping them. It is also important in Poland, which has become a hub of modern business services in the entire region. Companies today do not want to compete for employees only with a pay rise. They also want to offer them being the part of a larger whole, a larger culture – which consists of networks, mentors. All this is extremely important from the point of view of employee retention.

 

M.M.: What are other trends in the office world?

 

K.Z.-B.: Definitely a return to quality [powrót do jakości]. Both employees and employers are looking for high-standard space. Even if there is less of it, it simply has to be of high quality. This involves appropriate acoustics, lighting, a variety of workspaces, but also the location of the building. That is [tu: co oznacza], all important places should be reached by the public transport, so that the employee could have the access to service points allowing them to take care of at least some of their daily matters [codziennych spraw]. Employees want to have restaurants, canteens, parcel lockers [paczkomatów], other retail and service points nearby. So that they could feel that the area is bustling with life [kipiąca życiem]. Another thing is environmental issues [zagadnienia ekologiczne / środowiskowe], which are extremely important for companies, especially in the context of mandatory ESG reporting [obowiązkowe audyty ekologiczne]. It is about the materials used for construction, the carbon footprint [ślad węglowy] of the building, water consumption... It is very important for tenants [wynajmujących mieszkania, mieszkańców] today, we talk about ESG with almost every one of them. 'an escape to quality' is therefore an escape to quality not only per se [nie tylko samo w sobie], it is a very broadly understood pursuit of a sustainable [zrównoważony] work experience. We can see more and more clearly that those 'quality' buildings are very popular. At the same time, we have a supply gap [tu: niewystarczająca podaż], because there are currently few new office buildings being built.

 

M.M.: What is the reason for this?

 

K.Z.-B.: Financing costs are high, construction costs are high, and at the same time the investment market is in a difficult position. So fewer new projects are starting. However, we still have a lot of older office buildings on the market. They have to undergo transformation; sometimes to remain offices, and sometimes to change their function to hotels or residential buildings [budynki mieszkalne]. Of course, if it is possible and economically justified. This polarisation between new and older office spaces is really big – and it is still growing.

 

M.M: Is there not enough office space being built? It's hard to believe it when you look at Polish cities. I have the impression that the skylines of Polish cities are becoming more and more impressive. And I'm not just talking about Warsaw, but also about Katowice, Poznan, Wroclaw...

 

K.Z.-B.: Let's look at Warsaw. Before the pandemic, 600,000 sq ms were being built at the peak. Now we have practically one tenth of that. Of course, there are many reasons for this state of affairs, apart from the previously mentioned ones – attractive land is increasingly difficult to obtain [coraz trudniej dostępny]. That’s why these older buildings are rather being demolished [wyburzane], although the most preferred option is not demolition, but renovation. Today, development plans, e.g. in the centre of Warsaw, allow for higher buildings than before. So an old building can be demolished and the plot can be built up in a better way. Also architectural coherence [spójność] is important - the Polish capital has simply opted for high-rise buildings. For example, we are the owners of the older Ilmet building and we also want to demolish it, but in a reasonable way [rozsądny sposób].

 

M.M: In the 90s, office areas began to emerge [zaczęły powstawać] in Poland.

 

K.Z.-B.: Today we see that these weaker locations are considered less attractive because of their monoculturalism. We no longer want to work in office areas. And in these areas, for example, apartments are starting to emerge, such as in the famous 'Mordor'. And this is a healthy transformation.

 

M.M: The Polish office market is Warsaw and long way nothing behind it?

 

Poland, unlike many countries in our region, is developing polycentrically. We have seven strong office markets, apart from Warsaw, these are Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, the Tri-City, and Lodz.These are cities with good connections, but a good market also needs strong academic centres that provide staff to companies. And our cities have that. Of course, not every market is the same. In Katowice or Lodz, we have about 600 thousand square metres of office space, and Warsaw has over 6 million. Interest in offices is now focused on the largest cities, but it will later return to smaller ones. In Central and Eastern Europe, the largest markets are Warsaw, Prague, Budapest, then we have Cracov and Wroclaw. This development in many different locations is a great advantage of Poland. Smaller centres also have constantly lower labour and living costs – and this is attractive to many companies. But the dispersion [rozproszenie] of office markets also allows companies to catch employees from a much larger pool of talent. We would not have this if only the capital city developed.

 

M.M: Has the office market in Poland already had its biggest boom?

We still have much less office space per capita than the most developed markets, such as Germany. There is potential for development; the business services sector, the main tenant of these spaces, has been developing very quickly for years and has very good growth prospects for the coming years. We also have a certain advantage, thanks to which we can avoid making the mistakes that were made in the West, or at least on a much smaller scale. Office monocultures were just emerging in Western cities, such as Canary Wharf in London, where now people simply do not want to work. In our case, office spaces are relatively well 'mixed' with other types of spaces. We do not have many monoculture giants. 15-minute cities, diverse quarters – this is how cities develop in our country, and this plays to our advantage.

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 WHEN YOU FEEL A LACK OF ENERGY ... 

 

A state of apathy and indifference [zobojętnienia] a lack of life energy or constant fatigue and sleepiness can happen to each of us. As long as such symptoms are related to current life events, are lasting a short time and passing over time [mijają z czasem], they do not seem to be strange or disturbing [niepokojącym]. However, if apathy, loss of motivation to act and loss of interest in everyday activities occur chronically and affect the person's functioning, they may be a symptom of the disease. Apathy may also be one of the symptoms of many neurological or psychiatric diseases. These symptoms may have many different causes, so it is worth analysing them and taking appropriate measures [odpowiednie środki działania].

First, you need to take a look at your diet – many people eat whatever they want at a given moment. Most diets lack vegetables and fruits, seeds and nuts, which are a source of microelements necessary for the proper functioning of the body; primarily such as zinc and selenium, which are extremely important for the proper functioning of the thyroid gland [tarczycy]. Without them, this organ is unable to function properly and thus may lead to hypofunction [niedoczynności]. A poorly functioning thyroid gland means low energy levels, poor metabolism and poor mood (thyroid hormones affect neurotransmitters). If you feel that you lack zinc, start eating products such as pumpkin seeds, buckwheat and so on. Diet is a very important factor in the proper functioning of the body, so first start to have a healthy diet.

Chronic inflammation [przewlekły stan zapalny] is also a factor that can cause you to have little energy during the day, and every activity will be a heavy burden [obciążeniem]. A one-off [jednorazowy] and temporary inflammation is not a bad thing because it allows us to get rid of bacteria or viruses that attack us, but if it becomes chronic, it weakens the body. This type of condition occurs as a result of many factors. One of them is obesity [otyłość]. The adipose tissue [tkanka tłuszczowa] of overweight people produces pro-inflammatory hormones, which contributes to internal inflammation.

 

Besides changing your diet, you also need to change your lifestyle, so follow some of the tips [wskazówek] below:

 

1. Get enough sleep, allow yourself to sleep longer, go to bed earlier and get up earlier (rather than the other way round [i odwrotnie]).

 

2. Start establishing a daily routine of your activities and good habits and try to do them at the same time of the day.

 

3. Find out some hobby (even if it's a bit strange to your environment) and enjoy it.

 

4. Start doing some physical activity – of course, as possible as you can – it can be a daily walk, intense running training or fitness exercises.

 

5. Check your current professional situation and ask yourself if:

 

- Maybe the job you do was once the only way to earn money, and now your situation has changed?

- Maybe you have been operating at the highest speed for years, but your successes not

   commensurate with your commitment? [nie są adekwatne do Twojego zaangażowania]

- Maybe now you can afford to earn less, but can do what gives you joy?

- Maybe there are people around you who clip [podcinają] your wings or feed you with negative     

   predictions [przewidywaniami]?

 

6. Take a nap [drzemkę] during the day, even just for 15 minutes; it has been scientifically proven that it translates into a much longer night sleep time.

 

7. Try to do everything regularly during the day. Yes, it is not that easy for many professionally active people, but try to apply it in your life as much as possible. it is especially important to eat meals at a fixed time; eating 5 meals a day every 3 hours is ideal.

 

8. Laugh to your health [śmiej się dla zdrowia].

It turns out that even such a trivial activity as laughter can significantly improve the mood and increase motivation to act. Laughter and good humour influence us by seeing the funny side of the situations (instead of their irritating or frustrating aspects) and the ability to relieve the tension [napięcia] associated with difficult problems.

 

9. Drink adequate [odpowiednie] amounts of water.

It turns out that inadequate hydration of the body hinders [utrudnia] its functioning. A glass or two of water can go a long way in reducing drowsiness [ospałość]. The basic dietary recommendation is drinking 2 or 2.5 liters of water a day and it makes perfect sense [ma głęboki sens].

 

And finally, the article: '10 thieves of life energy according to Dalai Lama'.

 

1. Malcontents

If there is someone around you who likes to complain, sees everything in black and rarely smiles, you have to take into account that this mood will start to affect you soon or later. The frequent company of such a person takes away [odbiera] enthusiasm, energy and willingness [chęć] to act.

 

2. Debts

Sometimes life forces you to take out loans or credits, but such action may be harmful. Having debts that overwhelm [przytłaczają] you, robs you of your life energy and violates your peace of mind. Life is easier without having to pay installments and ultimately [w konsekwencji] giving back more money due to the interest. Getting rid of debts allows you to sleep peacefully.

 

3. Broken promises

Making empty promises and throwing words into the wind is another thief of life energy. A given word left unfilled causes someone to be hurt and disappointed [rozczarowany]. We also feel bad about ourselves, knowing that we have messed up [nawaliliśmy].

 

4. Acting against yourself

If we only do what we have to do and not what we agree with or what gives us joy, we disturb [zaburzamy] the balance in our lives and lose energy. It is worth spending some time to work out [wypracować] your priorities to regain harmony between your responsibilities and your own needs. It is worth listening to your instincts.

 

5. Mess.

Accumulating unnecessary things is overwhelming [przytłaczające]. Cluttered [zagracona] space distracts attention, causes anxiety and deprives life energy.

 

6. Lack of rest.

Lack of proper rest is another thief of life energy. It leads to physical and emotional fatigue and takes away the will to function. It affects health and well-being.

 

7. Insufficient care for your health.

If we do not care about our body, the need to rest and take care of our health, we cannot expect excess energy. You can function this way for some time, but the body is not a machine and at some point it may stop working.

 

8. Fighting windmills. [walka z wiatrakami]

A situation that we do not accept but at the same time cannot change, causes frustration, discouragement [zniechęcenie] and steals life energy. Sometimes we have to accept that we don't have control over everything. This will allow us to live better, more peacefully, without tormenting yourself [zadręczania się] and wasting time for fighting windmills.

 

9. Stressful situations.

The best solution is to avoid stressful situations, but it is not always possible, so you have to deal with them. Their excess [nadmiar] causes poor well-being, sleep and health problems. It is therefore not surprising that under severe stress one has the lack of energy to function.

 

10. Holding a grudge.

Being stuck [tkwienie] in false beliefs, dwelling [rozpamiętywanie] on past disappointments and unpleasantness is the last but very important thief of energy. It keeps us stuck in the past, becoming a prisoner [więźniem] of emotions. Forgiveness [przebaczenie], which is a difficult art, gives solace [ukojenie] and restores peace of mind.

W    R    T    A    F    G    V    D

 HOW TO MAKE A GOOD LAWYER

 

What distinguishes a really good lawyer and what should you do to become such a lawyer? In this essay, I will try to answer this question through the statements of real experts in legal topics. However remember, that there are many legal specialties and to be good at any of them, you must have specific predispositions to perform them. But of course there are common features, and specialists in this field talk about such common and fundamental features.

 

Let's start with a description of these features contained in an article by Sofia Gymer from allaboutlaw.co.uk

 

7 qualities every good lawyer should have

 

The skills you need for your ideal career are something that you can work on and develop over time. As they say: practice makes perfect! Here are a few that you should consider working on if you aspire to be a successful lawyer:

 

1. Good communication skills.

Lawyers must be orally articulate [wyrażać się jasno i czytelnie], have good written communication skills and also be good listeners. In order to argue convincingly [przekonująco] in the courtroom before juries and judges, good public speaking skills are essential. Communication and speaking skills can be developed during your studies by taking part in activities such as mooting [umiejętność dyskutowania] or general public speaking.

Lawyers must also be able to write clearly, persuasively and concisely, as they must produce a variety of legal documents.

 

2. Judgement. [ocena]

The ability to draw reasonable, logical conclusions or assumptions [tu: wnioski] from limited information is essential as a good lawyer.

One must also be able to consider these judgements critically, so that one can anticipate potential areas of weakness in your argument [słabości argumentacji] that must be fortified against.

Similarly, one must be able to spot points of weakness in an oppositions argument. Decisiveness [tu: pewność siebie] is also a part of the judgement. There will be a lot of important judgement calls to make and little time for sitting on the fence [unikanie podejmowania decyzji].

 

3. Analytical skills.

Both the study and practice of law involve absorbing large quantities of information, then having to distil (tu: przepuszczenia, odcedzenia) it into something manageable and logical.

At times, there will be more than one reasonable conclusion, or more than one precedent applicable [mający zastosowanie] to resolving a situation.

A lawyer must therefore have the evaluative skills [umiejętności oceniające] in order to choose which is the most suitable.

 

4. Research skills

Similarly, being able to research quickly and effectively is essential to understanding your clients, their needs, and to preparing legal strategies.

Preparing legal strategies requires absorbing and comprehending [zrozumienia] large amounts of information, then distilling them down into something manageable and useful.

 

5. People skills.

Law is not an abstract practice. Irrelevant of [tu: abstrachując od tego] how well someone does academically, at the end of the day lawyers work with people, on behalf of people, and the decisions that are made affect people's lives.

They must be personable, persuasive and able to read others. This allows them to gauge [ocenić] juror’s reactions and the honesty of witnesses.

This allows them to decide upon the best approach [podejście do sprawy] to take in order to achieve the desired outcome: either clients taking their advice or reaching a favourable negotiation with the opposition [stroną przeciwną].

 

6. Perseverance. [wytrwałość]

“Perseverance is not a long race; it is many short races one after the other.” Even studying to become a lawyer takes a great deal of perseverance and commitment – and that’s before you even start work!

Typically, a lawyer will do an undergraduate law degree, an LPC, and then a training contract before qualifying. Most will also complete a vacation scheme or some other kind of work experience.

When working on a case, you must have the perseverance to complete the work necessary to drive it to a successful finish.

 

7. Creativity.

The very top lawyers are not only logical and analytical, but they display a great deal of creativity in their problem-solving.

The best solution is not always the most obvious and in order to outmanoeuvre [wymanewrować] your challenger it is often necessary to think outside the box [myśleć niekonwencjonalnie].

 

Now, let's quote in this essay the article from the website 'Indeed Editorial Team' titled:

“How To Become a Good Lawyer: 10 Tips for Career Success”:

 

The job description for a lawyer often involves things like:

- Collaborating with clients, police, investigators and paralegals [asystenci prawni] to collect evidence, prepare legal documents and build cases for trials and mediations.

 

- Attending legal meetings, like trials and hearings, with clients.

 

- Explaining laws, rulings and regulations to clients and advising them on their legal rights.

 

- Delivering depositions [zeznań] of experts and witnesses for a case.

 

- Helping clients prepare legal documents, such as divorce agreements, business contracts and wills [testamentów].

 

- Reviewing a case [ogląd sprawy] to determine a client's best legal options.

 

How to Become a Good Lawyer (continuation)

You can become a better lawyer by following these simple tips:

 

1. Build a personal and professional network.

As with most professions, making connections can help you develop professional skills and advance your career. Focus on building a diverse network [zróżnicowana sieć] of personal and professional relationships. This can include people you've met through:

- Social organisations.

- Local bar associations.

- Law school.

- College.

These mentors, professional colleagues and friends can help promote your skills and expertise, resulting in potential clients and referrals.

 

2. Develop your communication skills.

Written and verbal communication skills are essential in this career. Communication is the foundation of this profession, and lawyers are expected to interact with their clients, the court, colleagues and other parties involved in a case.

As a lawyer, you must be able to present cases in a way that is clear, concise [zwarty] and persuasive [przekonujący], explain legal procedures and rights to clients and produce well-written legal documents. You may have to convey [przekazywać] important ideas in a variety of environments and settings, such as:

- Private conversations.

- Informal emails.

- Phone calls.

- Conference meetings.

A great way to develop these skills is by taking public speaking and writing courses in college.

 

3. Maintain your integrity. [wiarygodność, solidność]

There are many valuable skills in this field, but integrity is perhaps one of the most valuable traits [cech] you can have as a lawyer. Lawyers have an ethical responsibility to remain honest and operate within the parameters [parametrów] of law. By building a reputation as a legal professional with integrity [tu: z odpowiednią starannością], you can gain the respect of colleagues and clients in your community and grow your client base.

 

4. Embrace innovation. [postaw na innowacje]

Successful lawyers understand the importance of flexibility and creativity. Innovation is key when developing effective solutions, but it also allows you to serve your clients better by discovering cost-effective and efficient processes.

 

5. Remain persistent.

As with most professions, you may face a particularly difficult case at some point in your career. By remaining determined [zdeterminowany] you can overcome the most challenging cases and help your clients get the positive results they're hoping for.

 

6. Adopt a positive attitude.

Aside from [oprócz] showcasing [pokazywania] your commitment to your career, positivity can inspire faith in your professional abilities. You can ensure that both clients and colleagues enjoy working with you by trying to stay energised and enthusiastic, even when facing challenges [tu: trudności, przeciwności].

 

7. Stay passionate.

Remaining positive and persistent is much easier when you possess a true passion for your career. Passion can also make you feel genuinely fulfilled [naprawdę spełnionym] in your role, which often results in better professional performance. You can ignite [rozpalić] your passion for the law by:

- Choosing a specialty that aligns [tu: pokrywa się] with your values and interests.

- Investing in your professional development and continued learning.

- Creating and guarding a work-life balance.

 

8. Show compassion. [wczuwanie się, zrozumienie]

Truly effective lawyers are committed to making life better for their clients. By making an effort to understand and empathise with your client's situation, you can better serve and represent them. Aside from enabling you to become a more successful legal servant, having compassion can also provide you [dostarczy Ci] with a sense of professional fulfillment.

 

9. Listen intently. [uważnie]

Though technically a key component of communication, listening skills are equally as important as written and verbal communication combined. Active listening involves paying attention to the speaker's gestures, expressions and other nonverbal cues [wskazówek, objawów], as well as their words, so you can evaluate their feelings and all the information they're trying to convey [przekazać].

In order to actively listen to others, you must give those you're interacting with your undivided [niepodzielna] attention. A great lawyer understands the importance of listening to clients, the opposing counsel, witnesses and the court, because it allows them to better understand the information being shared. As a result, they can respond in a way that is thoughtful and strategic, and it could influence the outcome of the case [tu: ostateczny rezultat sprawy].

 

10. Continue learning and growing.

In order to become a better lawyer, you need intimate knowledge [tu: bardzo szczegółowej wiedzy] of the law, especially as it relates to your legal specialty. For example, the legal knowledge needed for family law is far different from what you would need to know as a civil rights lawyer.

Great lawyers are experts in their specific area of practice because they study the law and gain as much experience in their field as they can. If you know what type of law you'd like to work in, it's a good idea to take relevant classes [uczęszczać na odpowiednie zajęcia] while in law school.

 

Now let us give the floor to the outstanding lawyer; Mr. Ramzy Ladah; the founder and lead attorney at Ladah Law Firm, based in Las Vegas, Nevada, PLLC, who posted his essay on the Abraham Lincoln University website.

 

What Makes a Good Lawyer?

Common Traits of Successful Attorneys Today:

[Wspólne cechy prawników odnoszących teraz sukcesy]

 

In a difficult, confusing, or complicated situation, individuals and companies may find themselves desperately seeking the guidance [tu: pomocy] well-prepared and reliable legal professional. A great attorney has the potential to have a dramatic and positive impact on the life of a client. Whether it’s by helping them through a difficult family law matter, protecting them against false charges, or securing fair financial compensation after an accident, attorneys advocate for people during some of the most challenging times in their life.

But what makes a good lawyer? It’s not an easy job, and not everyone is cut out [tu: jest stworzony] for it. The American Bar Foundation (ABF) found that approximately a quarter of lawyers leave the profession within the first seven years. A legal degree can also be applied to a multitude of professional environments and careers. But for anyone that wants to know how to find a good lawyer or how to be a good lawyer it’s crucial [kluczowe, fundamentalne] to consider the key factors that make today’s attorneys successful. Below are ten traits that are common to the best lawyers in the United States.

 

1. Passion for the Job.

As a starting point, successful lawyers almost always have a true passion for their job. You have probably heard popular cliches [frazesy] like: “choose a job you love and you will never work a day in your life”. Of course, we all know that in the real world it’s not quite that simple. At the same time, there is a wide body [szeroki zbiór] of scientific evidence that demonstrates the importance of passion for your work. Some have an already developed enthusiasm for lifelong learning, but as noted by Deloitte, one of the keys to talent development is cultivating worker passion. In other words, people who are passionate about what they are doing are happier, more fulfilled and they perform better. If you have a passion for serving people and an interest in the law, you should consider applying for admission [przyjęcie] into law school.

 

2. Compassion for Clients.

Without compassion for their clients, a lawyer will never reach their true professional potential. The top legal minds [tu: postacie, autorytety] in the field almost invariably highlight [niezmiennie podkreślają] compassion and service when they offer advice to law students and aspiring lawyers. For example, as reported by the Columbia Daily Spectator, Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, told law students that they should try to use their degree to “make things a little better for other people”. A lawyer who is committed to representing and helping their clients is likely to find meaning and success in their professional life.

 

3. Great Communication Skills.

On a fundamental level, attorneys are communicators. They communicate with their clients, they communicate with other parties to the case, and they communicate with the court. Beyond that, lawyers communicate in a wide range of different ways. A great lawyer knows how to get important ideas across in formal legal writing, in informal emails, in phone conversations, through discussions in official legal settings, and in private conversations. Law students and aspiring lawyers should never miss an opportunity to sharpen their communication skills. It’s not just about the law [tu: nie tylko chodzi o prawo], it’s also about the business. As noted by the American Bar Association (ABA), the average American law firm spends a considerable amount of time attracting and retaining clients. Lawyers need to know how to network [tu: nawiązać porozumienie] with potential clients and how to demonstrate their professional capabilities in consultations with prospective clients. Remember, the greatest legal mind in the world will not be able to use their skills until they get hired.

 

4. Willingness to Listen.

One of the most underrated traits [niedocenianych cech] shared by almost every successful attorney is a strong ability and willingness to listen. Although strong listening is a part of overall communication skills, it’s important to highlight listening as its own professional trait. Effective communication is a two-way street. Too many people fail to put in the time and energy to fully understand and comprehend what the other party is saying. When you truly [tu: naprawdę] open up your ears, you will probably recognise that people are giving you even more information that you thought. Listening to your clients, listening to witnesses, listening to your opposing counsel, and listening to the court can be the difference between winning and losing a case. Great lawyers take in [tu: wchłaniają] all relevant information, analyse it, and create a plan of action.

 

5. Knowledge of the Law.

Imagine that you were hurt in a truck accident on a local highway. You would probably want to turn to an experienced personal injury lawyer. If you’re considering starting a company and want guidance [pomocy] on corporate formation, you will undoubtedly want to find an experienced business attorney. While successful lawyers share many common traits, they may rely on a distinct [tu: specyficzny, właściwy dla] body of law. The legal knowledge needed to be an effective corporate litigator [prawnik korporacyjny] is far different than the legal knowledge needed to help a California couple pursue a private adoption. Great lawyers know their area of practice. Some of this knowledge comes from experience. Some of it comes from education. If you are currently pursuing [tu: ciągle uzupełniasz] your legal education, you will want to find the right law school classes that will be the most useful for you in your future practice.

 

6. Strong Writing Ability.

One of the single defining traits that all successful attorneys share, is excellent writing skills. Don’t be fooled by the flashy procedurals [procedury na pokaz] that are ever popular on television, the vast majority of lawyers spend far more time writing than they do in oral arguments. Successful lawyers must be able to prepare effective, clear, and well-reasoned [dobrze przemyślanych] legal documents. If you want to take action now that will help you become a better lawyer in the future, focus on sharpening [tu: ulepszeniem] your writing skills. An attorney who can tell a compelling [fascynującą] story that weaves in all of the relevant facts [która pokazuje dokładnie wszystkie istotne fakty] and arguments is an attorney that will be successful for a long time.

 

7. Creativity.

When you think about the job of an attorney, creativity may not be the first trait that comes to your mind. However, contrary to the popular conceptions of most people, successful attorneys are often highly creative people. The law is not purely a science. There is an art to effective legal practice. Remember, each client that an attorney deals with will have their own unique [jedyny w swoim rodzaju] set of goals, objectives, and concerns [obaw]. In some cases, ‘outside-the-box’ thinking can help craft [tu: umożliwić] a solution that the client may never even realise was possible. Successful lawyers know how to tailor [tu: dostosować] their creativity to suit every situation. All cases should be approached with an open mind.

 

8. Good Judgment. 

At times, lawyers are required to make judgements – both for themselves and for their clients. For instance, a lawyer may have to decide whether a legal claim is worth pursuing at all. Alternatively, an attorney may be involved deep in settlement negotiations and their client may ask them for their opinion on a proposed deal. To be clear; [będąc precyzyjnym] the client is ultimately [ostatecznie] responsible for making a choice, but it’s the lawyer’s job to make sure that the client knows and understands all relevant information so that they can make an informed decision. An attorney who lacks good judgement is an attorney who will not last very long in the field [nie wytrwa długo w zawodzie].

 

9. A Healthy Skepticism.

Every successful attorney maintains a healthy skepticism. This does not mean that you need to be a pessimist or a negative person, but it does mean that you need to be aware of the fact that what you are being told might not represent the full story. Many experienced lawyers have stories about mistakes they made when they were just starting out in the field [startowali w zawodzie]. A common error that almost every seasoned [tu: początkujący] lawyer has made at least once, involves believing someone without getting proper verification. In too many cases, clients and witnesses will leave out important details. As a result, the attorney is set up for an unfortunate surprise down the road [tu: w końcowej fazie]. Successful attorneys always maintain that healthy skepticism. If something sounds ‘wrong’ or ‘off’, they take the time to verify the information.

 

10. Perseverance.

Finally, successful lawyers know how to persevere. The law is a tough field. There is no reason to sugar coat it [tu: upiększać]; practicing law can be one of the most rewarding and meaningful careers out there, but it’s also a lot of work. As is true with any profession, success requires effort. There will be difficult days. You may be stuck dealing [utknąć w kontaktach] with a client who is making your life unnecessarily hard, an opposing counsel who is being rude for no reason, or a judge who ruled the wrong way on a key procedural matter [który orzekł błędnie w kluczowej kwestii proceduralnej]. You may simply be frustrated because you spilled hot coffee on your shirt that morning. It happens. What sets successful attorneys apart from ordinary attorneys is that they know how to persevere through the challenging times to get to the rewarding and meaningful moments that make it all worth it.

 

I found this article on 'The Lawyer Portal'. The author is anonymous, but the content is very valuable for lawyers. Here is the article:

      

What Makes a Good Lawyer?

Qualities & Characteristics

What Skills Do Good Lawyers Have?

 

A good lawyer is highly skilled. You can start to develop the skills you need to become a good lawyer at A-Level [na maturze], university, through work experience, a legal apprenticeship, a CILEx qualification, a law conversion course, and beyond.

You will be expected to develop a range of skills, from communication to research, and creative to logical thinking. To be a good lawyer, you must have:

- A strong knowledge of the law.

- Good judgement and decision making skills.

- Research and analytical skills.

- Writing and comprehension [zrozumienia, analizy] skills.

- Good communication, public speaking and listening skills.

- Leadership and logical thinking skills.

Good lawyers never stop learning and are proactive, not reactive [tu: poszukujący a nie bierni]. The skills a lawyer needs are cultivated [tu: są stale ulepszane] over time and come with experience. Whether you have just started studying law, just starting out on your legal career or you have 20 years of legal experience, you will continuously be developing these key lawyer skills.

 

Key Skills For Lawyers:

 

1. Knowledge of the law.

A strong knowledge of the law is a key foundational skill for lawyers. If you plan to pursue a career in a specific area of law, dedicate your time to developing your legal knowledge in that legal discipline.

 

2. Good communication.

Good communication is the cornerstone [tu: podstawą] of any lawyer-client relationship. You need to know how to communicate in all kinds of different situations, so you should never miss an opportunity to sharpen [tu: poprawić] your communication skills. Listening and responsiveness [reagowanie] are pillars of good communication as a lawyer, and are highly appreciated by clients facing challenging situations.

 

3. Creativity.

Creativity is also a key skill for lawyers. The law is not purely a science, there is an art to effective legal practice. In some cases, you will need to ‘think outside the box’ [tu: nieschematycznego myślenia] to find a solution. A good lawyer knows how to apply creativity under pressure.

 

4. Logical, analytic, research and writing skills.

Having excellent logical, analytical, research and writing skills are all hallmarks [oznaki] of a good lawyer. Successful lawyers must be able to prepare effective, clear and well-reasoned legal documents and arguments that require research, plus a strong analytical and logical approach.

 

5. Personal qualities for a lawyer.

The key personal quality for a lawyer is a true passion for the job. For example, if you are passionate about tackling key societal issues [rozwiązywanie kluczowych problemów społecznych], you can fulfil your passion as a successful lawyer.

Equally, resilience [elastyczność, dopasowanie] is a personal quality for good lawyers. Some days, the legal profession can be tough and you will have to dig in [tu: uodpornić się] because you will face demanding deadlines, complicated legal cases, high-stakes scenarios [tu: walka o wysoką stawkę] and even potentially vulnerable [tu: przewrażliwionych] clients. You will also be subject to constant feedback and review from your peers [tu: osądu innych prawników], so a thick skin is essential for a good lawyer.

You must be motivated to be a good lawyer because you will often have to work long, challenging hours. Staying motivated helps to keep cases on track [tu: nie zbaczać z obranej drogi], ensures things aren’t overlooked and maintains your commitment to helping clients to the best of your ability.

 

Key lawyer characteristics

1. Organisation.

A key characteristic of a good lawyer is organisation. There are a lot of components to the legal system, and being organised ensures [tu: gwarantuje] that you maintain professional standards and adhere [przestrzegasz] to legal processes [tu: procedur]. Lawyers work with all kinds of evidence and sensitive information.

Good organisation protects sensitive information from getting into the wrong hands, and helps to keep all legal documents in order, which is important if they need to be referred to [kiedy trzeba się powołać] during a case.

 

2. Patience.

Legal cases can last months or even years, so patience is another key lawyer characteristic. Having patience enables you to act professionally when clients are pushing you for answers.

 

3. Composure. [opanowanie]

When acting on behalf of a client, a solid emotional balance is important. That’s where composure comes in. Legal cases can be intense, and a good lawyer will be able to stay composed under pressure to maintain a sense of respect and professionalism in all situations.

 

4. Compassion.

Working with clients as a lawyer requires compassion. There is a lot of emotion involved in legal cases, and demonstrating compassion can help a client feel more assured in difficult times. While it is important to separate your own emotions from challenging cases, showing compassion is useful when interacting with clients.

 

5. Persuasion. [umiejętność perswazji]

Powers of persuasion tie in with good people skills as a key characteristic of a good lawyer. Irrespective of [niezależnie od] academic qualities, lawyers work with people and on behalf of people every day, and the actions a lawyer takes, affect people’s lives. Convincing clients to take specific actions that are in their best interests often requires some gentle persuasion.

 

How to become a good lawyer

To become a good lawyer, you must invest in learning and developing your skills, your personal qualities and your character. Combining all these factors will help you develop all the attributes needed to succeed as a lawyer.

As a lawyer, you will have a responsibility to guide your clients through the legal system to the best of your ability. A good lawyer continuously develops their craft [tu: warsztat pracy], maintaining their knowledge of the law and dedicating themselves to personal development.

 

And finally, a short but informative article on the website 'attorneyatwork' by Ms. Jamie Jackson Spannhake; a writer, coach for lawyers, and speaker, which confirms all the above features that a good lawyer should have:

 

What makes a great lawyer?

Is it intelligence, good people skills, effective writing? Of course, we must have a certain level of intelligence and motivation, along with experience and opportunities. But the truth is, the traits [cechy] that transform a good lawyer into a great lawyer may not be the ones you think.

 

Here are five traits that make a lawyer – or any person – stand above the rest. Cultivating these traits provides the opportunity to really understand the issues and offer effective solutions.

 

1. Compassion: one of the many qualities of a lawyer.

Compassion is an emotional response whereby one perceives another’s problem and authentically, genuinely wants to help resolve the problem. This is part of what lawyers do: People come to us with their problems, or to avoid future problems, and we help resolve or avoid the issues, whichever the case may be. If you practice business law, tax law or in any area that is not particularly “emotional,” you may not think that compassion is important to your practice. But it is. The compassionate lawyer focuses on how others feel and is accepting of their perspective, whether or not he ultimately agrees with it.

Compassion is the foundation for good people skills. Without compassion, you cannot put yourself in your client’s shoes [wejść w położenie klienta] or fully understand the issues your client faces. Without compassion, you cannot understand your adversary’s position, anticipate what she will do, and take pre-emptive steps to benefit your client. Without it, you cannot provide the best solutions.

 

2. Ability to listen.

Effective communication skills are essential to good lawyering. One of the most important aspects of communication is listening. Of course, what we say, how we say it and when we say it are important. But we can only do it right if we listen first. Listen to your clients. Listen to your adversaries [przeciwników, drugiej strony], your colleagues, and the judges. As lawyers, we must take in much information, analyse and synthesise it, and exercise good judgment [wytworzyć dobrą ocenę] to provide advice to our clients. It starts with listening.

 

3. Assertiveness [pewność siebie], not aggressiveness.

I often hear people say, “She’s not aggressive enough to be an effective lawyer.” That’s not right. You don’t need to be aggressive – though you must be assertive. Assertive lawyers state their opinions and make themselves heard [są słuchani] while remaining respectful of others. Aggressive lawyers attack or ignore others’ opinions in favour of their own.

Much like those who lack compassion, overly aggressive lawyers cannot understand another’s position when it varies from their client’s position. That makes them ineffective at understanding the problem and thus incapable of providing an effective solution. Even more detrimental [tu: działający na szkodę], overly aggressive lawyers act without respect for others. This damages interpersonal relationships, ultimately [tu: w konsekwencji] leading to an uncooperative environment that makes resolution or agreement impossible.

 

4. Creativity.

We need to be creative to find real solutions to the issues our clients face. Each matter is unique [jedyna w swoim rodzaju]; each client must be handled differently, and each solution carefully crafted [tu: dobrze załatwiony]. While on the whole we lawyers are a rather risk-averse [niechętni ryzyku] group, we must learn to think outside the box. The best way to create unique solutions is to approach each situation with compassionate listening, which enables you to really understand the issues and what the client and the adversary need. That level of understanding can lead to long-lasting solutions that work for all interested parties. Stalemates [sytuacje patowe] often arise when opposing counsel fails to approach the matter with compassionate listening and, instead, becomes unnecessarily aggressive. Don’t be that deal-breaker.

 

5. Perseverance.

Success is achieved with perseverance. We must keep working, keep trying and keep going. We must be able to walk away when things are not working, take a break and come back fresh and ready to “fight,” negotiate, or whatever the matter requires.

-----------------

As you can easily see, many traits of a good lawyer are confirmed in these subsequent [kolejnych] articles. Do you already know what makes a good lawyer?

Now go out there and be one of those great lawyers! 

 

W    R    T    A    F    G    V    D

THE ECOLOGICAL POLICY OF THE STATE

The ecological policy (ecopolitics) is the conscious and purposeful activity of the state consisting of [polegająca na] the rational use of resources and values of the natural environment, its proper protection and skillful shaping, on the basis of theoretical and practical knowledge acquired by humanity, and this policy is implemented [wdrażana] by introducing appropriate laws and regulations. The European Union and the OECD recommend the use of various economic instruments in environmental protection, generally based on the principle: 'polluter pays'. The most frequently used economic instruments for environmental protection in OECD and European Union countries include:

- fees for emission of pollutants into the environment,

- fees for changes in the environment (including the use of natural resources),

- fees for the use of natural values,

- penalties for exceeding environmental protection requirements,

- tax and customs reliefs and exemptions [ulgi i zwolnienia],

- subsidies for pro-ecological projects,

- loan guarantees for pro-ecological projects,

- ecological product fees,

- ecological deposits,

- ecological insurance,

- trading in pollution emission permits [pozwoleniami na emisję zanieczyszczeń].

For example, environmental penalties are financial penalties that have been established for all excessive emissions of pollutants. Unlike fees that are charged to production costs, these penalties are paid from after-tax income and are therefore an instrument with a stronger incentive impact [oddziaływaniu bodźcowym] than fees. In terms of the penalty system, the mechanism of postponing their payment and amortisation [umarzanie], and when the penalised entities carry out [realizują] pro-ecological investments, the completion of them makes it possible to eliminate the reasons for imposing penalties.

 

The best solution to protect the environment is using market mechanisms because the negative impact of economic activity on the natural environment justifies the intervention of state authorities. Ecological policy means the inclusion [włączenie] of ecological aspects in sectoral policies; that is, treating them on an equal level with economic and social aims [celami]. An example of an environmental policy aim is the preservation and creation of jobs in fields that are less burdensome [obciążające] to the environment (usually called 'green jobs'). This term was used for the first time in the Stockholm Declaration in 1972 and is an important factor shaping the content of environmental protection law standards, and the key principle of ecological policy is the principle of 'sustainable [zrównoważonego] development'.

The development of a market economy is related with an increase in the importance of economic instruments, including in ecological policy. Economic instruments are the use of indirect, economic and market coercion [przymusu], which is based mainly on the premise [przesłance] that by implementing appropriate legal, institutional and economic solutions, it is possible to reduce the social costs of achieving the desired level of environmental use and /or pollution.

 

Indirect methods (indirect coercion) are economic and market methods that are based mainly on a theoretical premise that by internalising the negative impacts [oddziaływań] of production (including consumption) it will be achieved significantly reduced emission of various types of pollutants. In practice, it means that economic instruments do not indicate the methods of action for polluters, but they have some discretion [swobodę decyzji] to modify their behaviour according to their own circumstances. Economic efficiency is stimulated [pobudzana] by economic agents directly incorporating environmental costs and benefits into the price and by modifying the flexibility [elastyczność] they have, to behave or consume according to their own circumstances (e.g. changing production technologies).

 

Economic instruments (incentive-based regulation – IBR) are instruments of an administrative and legal nature and include environmental standards, emission standards and technological standards. The range of economic instruments developed so far is wide and varied in terms of their [tu: w zależności od] construction. These instruments are particularly important among all environmental protection measures, because solutions to the problems of ecological threats [zagrożeń] and barriers are increasingly seen at the economic level. Economic instruments are therefore a tool for influencing economic entities, influencing their financial results. Thanks to economic instruments, environmental protection is no longer an external or side activity, but an important economic activity and economic entities are influenced by their decisions. Of course it applies mainly to enterprises, but also to households and public institutions. Economic instruments use price incentives to influence countless decisions made by polluting entities. Entities, taking into account the instruments applied to them in their microeconomic calculation, make decisions that will direct [ukierunkowują] their activities towards appropriate [właściwe] behaviour from the point of view of ecological policy. These instruments should be aimed at creating conditions for undertaking investment projects for environmental protection to an increasing extent [w rosnącym stopniu] resulting from the economic calculation of entities and being economically beneficial for them. That is why it is so important to constantly introduce new and /or modified economic instruments in environmental protection which increase the scope of application [stosowania] of the fundamental principle: 'the polluter pays'.

In particular, it concerns the increased scope of bearing economic and financial consequences related to the ecologically burdensome [uciążliwymi] effects of consumption, which should be perceived as an important direction of activities for sustainable consumption. In practice, economic instruments are more flexible than other environmental protection instruments because they can be modified and adapted to new economic conditions more quickly and easily. The constant emphasis [ciągły nacisk] on pollution reduction is also a stimulus [bodźcem] for innovation, as economic instruments encourage companies to look for cheaper and more effective ways to reduce pollution.

The main difference between economic instruments and legal regulations (direct regulation) is that economic instruments do not indicate [pokazują] how the polluter should behave. Polluters have some discretion [swobodę] to modify their behaviour according to their conditions. By attaching a financial cost to changing emissions levels, economic instruments create incentives for companies to reduce emissions.

Environmental fees (listed above) are one of the most frequently used instruments of financial impact [oddziaływania] in a free market economy. The main advantages of using the eco-fee system are the fact that entities polluting the environment can predict the amount of fees in advance in connection with the planned production volume and the flexibility of fees depending on the intensity of environmentally threatening factors. The disadvantages [wady] of using eco-fees are manifested in the complicated system of determining the amount of fees, because too low rates result in a lack of interest in environmental protection, while high rates cause the risk of uncontrolled storage [składowania] or removal of pollutants.

State subsidies are intended to fully or partially cover the costs that an enterprise must incur [ponieść] due to changing the existing production technology to an environmentally neutral technology. The advantage of this instrument is a direct encouragement to introduce changes towards 'clean technologies', and the disadvantage is the fact that the costs of technological changes are not borne [poniesione] by the polluter but by taxpayers, which means that not the perpetrator [sprawca] really bears them but the victims.

 

The introduction of deposit systems in the European Union countries (Deposit Refund Systems – DRS) in the late 1980s turned out to be very effective. The efficiency however can be high if deposits are also high (90-95% returns). The benefits include primarily a reduction in the volume and weight of municipal waste and a reduction in the consumption of raw materials for packaging production. The operational costs of preparing a depository system (trade, storage [magazynowanie], energy and transport) are usually high and require comparison [porównywania] with the expected benefits. It is worth noting [warto zauważyć] that the use of deposit systems is consistent [zgodne] with the principles of sustainable development.

Most European countries have already introduced the Ecological Insurance. The insurance understood in this way may be compulsory [przymusowy] – i.e. resulting from the obligation to insure a specific type of activity or installation imposed by the state, or voluntary [dobrowolny]. The development of voluntary insurance observed in the 1980s and 1990s in highly developed countries was caused primarily by the expansion in these countries of the scope of civil liability [odpowiedzialności cywilnej] of enterprises for the ecological effects of their activities. This included, among other things, covering the consequences of the long-term ecological impacts [oddziaływań ekologicznych].

There are also more and more persuasive [perswazyjnych] instruments that influence the behaviour of economic entities and social groups by acquiring, producing and providing information on alternative behaviours and the consequences of each of these behavioral variants, as well as by negotiating with entities ways of behaving and concluding [zawieranie] social contracts by consultations.

 

Environmental protection policy can be implemented using various instruments. However, none of them is a perfect solution. Some instruments are better suited [dostosowane] to specific environmental problems and economic conditions. For example, it would be inappropriate to introduce taxes on dangerous substances, if strict control or prohibition [zakaz] is more effective. The choice of instruments should be based not only on economic criteria, but also on social and political ones.

It should be noted that in most cases various instruments are used in combinations, i.e. the introduction of mixed systems in which economic instruments are an addition to direct regulations is becoming more and more common. In such systems, economic instruments complement [uzupełniają] regulations by providing additional incentives [zachęty] to reduce pollution and create a source of funds to finance environmental protection projects such as wastewater treatment [oczyszczanie ścieków] or waste storage and its processing [przetwarzanie]. In practice, the opposite situation is also encountered [spotyka się], when regulations are an addition to economic instruments.

The combinations of economic instruments and regulations used in practice vary between countries and depend on the types of pollution. In some cases, economic instruments form the basis of policy (especially sewage charges [opłaty za ścieki] in France, the Netherlands and Germany). In other situations, these instruments only provide an additional financial incentive (e.g. certain types of product taxes).

In another countries, they provide an optional tool to minimise costs (e.g. tradable authorisations [uprawnienia zbywalne] in the USA). However, this situation will evolve [zmieniać się] as in some countries economic instruments begin to play an increasingly important role, not only by introducing new types of them, but also by increasing their effectiveness [zwiększeniu ich skuteczności] by increasing tax rates and fees, which may lead to changes in the behaviour of polluters.

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THE HISTORY OF COMMON LAW

 

After the Norman invasion and the victory of the Normans at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, there were radical changes in the law prevailing [panującym] in England. So far, customary law had prevailed [przeważało], applied in a rather arbitrary way, and the so-called'God's judgment', i.e. subjecting [poddawanie] parties or witnesses to tests in order to prove their truthfulness [prawdomówność]. Common law, also known as Anglo-American law, is a set of laws based on court decisions and contained in reports of already decided cases that had been adjudicated [zasądzane] by common law courts in England since the Middle Ages. The common law system was introduced in 1154 by Henry II Plantagenet, King of England when court hearings began to rely on juries, the custom of swearing in parties and witnesses before the trial was also introduced. The counterparts [odpowiedniki] of today's civil and criminal courts were the Courts of Common Pleas and the Courts of King's Bench. The counterpart of today's Supreme Court was the Court of Kings (the Westminster Court) and Tax Exchequers were introduced. In opposition to these courts were the ecclesiastical [kościelne] courts, applying canon law, which caused the conflict between the king and the church, as a result of which the Archbishop of Canterbury was killed by the Royal Guard. This type of legal system is now also used in the US and most Commonwealth member states and contrasts with the civil law legal system now widespread [rozpowszechniony] in continental Europe and in many countries outside Europe. However, starting from 1973 (the date of the entry of the United Kingdom into the European Union), legal systems in the UK had to necessarily [z konieczności] integrate with the legal system of the European Union, which had a direct impact on the internal law of its constituent countries [państw składowych], which had their national law systems.

English common law originated [powstało] in the early Middle Ages at the royal court (Curia Regis) in Westminster (then the capital), near London. Like many other early legal systems, it originally did not consist of substantive laws [praw materialnych] but rather procedural measures. The development of these measures resulted over time in a modern system in which rights are seen as superior to procedures. Until the late 19th century English common law was developed mainly by judges rather than legislators. Serious grievances [krzywdy] were treated mainly as public offenses rather than as personal matters, and perpetrators [sprawcy] were punished by death and forfeiture [przepadek] of property. Government was centralised a the bureaucracy grew, but written records were preserved. However the elements of the Anglo-Saxon system survived including the jury, the practice of outlawry [banicji] (exposing a person outside the protection of the law) and warrants requiring a court appearance.

An important consolidation occurred [nastąpiła ważna konsolidacja] during the reign of Henry II (1154–1189). The Normans spoke French and developed common law in Normandy, they had no professional lawyers or judges; instead, educated clergymen [duchowni] acted as administrators. Some of the clergymen knew Roman law and the canon law of the Christian church, which developed in the universities in the twelfth century. Canon law was applied in English ecclesiastical courts, but the revived Roman law had less influence in England than elsewhere, despite Norman dominance in governance. However, Norman customs were not simply transplanted to England, but a new set of rules emerged [powstał], based on local conditions. As much of the litigations [sporów sądowych] in the common courts involved land take, land law was the earliest area of law to develop a detailed set of substantive rules [zasad materialnych], eventually summarised in the first English law 'handbook': “Littleton's Tenures”, written by Sir Thomas Littleton and originally published in 1481. Primogeniture; the right of inheritance of the eldest son, became characteristic of common law.

■ Development of centralised judiciary [sądownictwa]

The unity and consistency [spójność] of the common law was promoted by the dominant position held by the royal courts; the king's judges used to go to provincial towns and took Westminster law with them everywhere, in both civil and criminal cases, and though local customs were sometimes accepted, the royal courts controlled them and often rejected them as unreasonable or unproven. Customary law was assumed to apply everywhere until local custom was proven [udowodniony]. This situation was in striking contrast to that in France, where the monarch ruled many duchies and counties, each with its own customary law, and to that in Germany and Italy, where independent kingdoms and principalities were also governed by their own laws. This early centralisation also reduced the influence of Roman law on law in England, unlike [w przeciwieństwie do] much of the rest of Europe after the fall of feudalism.

The expression 'customary law', coined [wymyślone] to distinguish general law from local or group custom and privilege, had the influence on citizens to apply universal law, based on reason and logic, and better applied. In the 13th century, common law was applied by three central courts; tax court, common court and royal bench. Although the same law applied in each court, they competed in offering the parties better legal remedies [środków prawnych] to increase their material benefits. The judicial mechanism in civil matters was built around a system of warrants [nakazów]. Each warrant was a written order issued in the king's name, issued by the royal clerk's office or chancellery at the applicant's request, ordering the accused to appear at the king's court or ordering a lower court to see to it that justice was done [sprawiedliwości stało się zadość]. It was based on the form of the claim (i.e. on a specific type of complaint; e.g. a misdemeanor [wykroczeniu] and it was only necessary to select the appropriate title for this form. Royal warrants had to be used for all land title actions.

Under Henry III (reigned 1216–1272), some unknown royal official prepared ca. 1235 an ambitious treatise: 'De legibus et consuetudinibus Angliae' ('On the Laws and Customs of England'). The text was later associated with the royal judge Henry de Bracton, who is said to have authored it. This treatise was modeled on the Institutiones (Institutes), a 6th-century Roman legal classic by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, and shows a great deal of knowledge of Roman law. Bracton extracted [wyodrębnił] several thousand cases from court records (letters or pleas) as material for his book. The lists of charges formed an almost uninterrupted series from 1189, and included warrants, pleadings, verdicts, and judgments in nearly every civil action.

 

■ Early Statutory Law of Edward I

Edward I (reigned 1272-1307) was called the English Justinian because his legislation had a very significant impact [wpływ] on English law. Edward's civil legislation, which amended [znowelizowało] the unwritten common law, remained the basic statutory law for many centuries. It was supplemented by a large number of specialised laws that had been enacted [uchwalone] to solve current legal issues.In modern times, statutes issued prior to 1285 are sometimes regarded as common law rather than statutory law, because these laws tended to transform existing law or give it more specific expression.

Prior to the formation of the House of Commons, it was also difficult to distinguish acts of Parliament from decisions or resolutions of the King's Council as the executive branch. Some laws were passed but never implemented [nie weszły w życie], while others were quietly ignored. Since it is impossible to formulate legal provisions that would adequately respond [odpowiednio reagowałyby] to every possible eventuality, their mechanical application could lead to injustice. To remedy this, the law of equity (previously called 'the law of conscience') was developed. Equity was as old as common law, but it had been not needed until the 14th century because law was still relatively fluid and informal. However, once the law became firmly established [mocno ugruntowane], its strict rules of evidence began to cause difficulties. Since the defendant could appeal, a system of pleadings developed.

During the reign of Edward I, the office of magistrate was transformed from a clerical position to a full-time office. Admission to the bar (i.e. the right to practice as a barrister before a court) was conditional upon the applicant's legal knowledge. Thus, the legal profession began to emerge as a profession that required permanent institutions and organised legal education. As the legal profession grew, more experienced barristers were admitted to the rank of Sergeant Solicitor and later joined the judges who were appointed from their ranks. Four Inns of Court (Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple) were established and became the bodies officially recognised [uznanymi] as having the right to admit new persons to the Bar. For some time, Bracton's work was adapted for scholarly purposes, but it quickly became obsolete [przestarzałe], so attorneys had to take notes in court with actual legal arguments to stay abreast of current [być na bieżąco] legal practices. In the 16th century, they began to be printed and arranged according to years of reign, and came to be called annual books. The annual book reports were usually written in very abbreviated [skrótowym] French legal language. Thus, jurisprudence [orzecznictwo] became the typical form of English common law, but the dynastic Wars of the Roses in the second half of the 15th century led to a practical breakdown of the legal order.

 

■ Establishment of prerogative courts

After Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, a series of courts were set up that were outside the common law system and established by Henry II and his successors. In some reason, it reflected developments in Europe that were associated with Renaissance trends and that promoted litigation in a more bureaucratic manner, as opposed to the oral procedure which was in use in common law. These new courts were referred [określane mianem] to as prerogative courts because they were equated [utożsamiano] with the royal executive power, although some of them had a statutory basis. All of these courts competed with the existing ordinary courts, prompting the latter [co skłoniło te ostatnie] to develop new ways of conducting court cases that proved to be more efficient and faster than those previously available, especially in relation to minor offences.

In the Court of Appeal (called the Star Chamber after the chamber in which the meetings were held), which had its counterparts in France, the costs of proceedings were lower than in ordinary proceedings and it was established to settle small civil claims. While the common courts punished serious crimes such as murder and robbery, the Star Chamber dealt with [zajmowała się] more sophisticated crimes such as forgery, perjury [krzywoprzysięstwo] and conspiracy. The common punishment in these cases was fines and prison terms. Common law judges, secular peers [parowie świeccy] and bishops sat in these courts, and such a court also exercised civil jurisdiction. However, they soon lost their original popularity when the Stuart kings used them to suppress political opposition, and most of their jurisdiction was swallowed up by the courts of general jurisdiction in 1660.

The revolution of the 16th century throughout Europe resulted in significant changes in the law. One consequence was the increased influence of universities and highly educated lawyers on the courts. The English law tradition was based on detailed court rulings on specific legal issues arising in practice, but the influence of Roman law ideas was probably greater than is commonly believed; many crimes and misdemeanors had their Roman analogies, also remedies [tu: środki zaskarżenia] had analogies in canon law, and the right to buy mortgages could be related to usury [lichwiarskie] laws that forbade deriving excessive profits from loans. Continental mercantile law, which incorporated elements of Roman law, was incorporated into English law as it is today. Continental law also contributed to some of the principles of legal contract and the Roman concept of fault played an important role in the law of negligence [w prawie zaniedbania]. In fact, many of the old European legal ideas have survived longer in England than in Europe, but common law it was always followed [starano się przestrzegać] when in doubt.

 

■ Works by William Blackstone

The most famous of English jurists, Sir William Blackstone, had an extraordinary influence on the development of common law and its spread [jego rozpowszechnienie] in other parts of the world. He was born in 1723, entered the bar in 1746, and in 1758 became the first lecturer in English law at an English university. His most influential work: “Commentaries on the Laws of England”, was published between 1765 and 1769 and consisted of four books on family and public law. His book: “Of the Rights of Things”, gave a brilliant outline [opis] of property law, the next: “Of Private Wrongs”, covered civil liability, courts and procedure, and the next: “Of Public Wrongs”, was an excellent study of criminal law. Far from being a science lawyer, Blackstone was criticised for his superficiality [powierzchowność] and lack of historical sense, but lawyers and lay people [ludzie świeccy] alike came to regard him as a legal authority, and in the next century Blackstone's fame was even greater in the United States than in his homeland. After the American Declaration of Independence (1776), his commentaries became the main source of knowledge of English law in the New World.

 

■ Jeremy Bentham's reforms

After the social turmoil [zawirowaniach społecznych] of the French Revolution (1789) and the economic upheaval [przewrocie] of the Industrial Revolution, there were many demands for reforms to modernise the law. The most prominent figure in the reform movement was the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, who wanted a radical reform of all law. Bentham entered the Bar [wstąpił do palestry] in 1769, but he did not consider it necessary to practice law, but focused on making the law more transparent to the people and published his works successively [kolejno]. His primary work was: “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation”, which appeared in 1789. Bentham advocated [opowiadał się za] two fundamental changes to the legal system; that is, that legislators, not courts, make the law, and that the purposes of the law change according to their location.

 

■ Changes in criminal proceedings and law

In England, the old framework of separate forms of action in civil cases was replaced in 1852 by a new system of uniform summons [wezwań do stawiennictwa] and a liberal change of pleadings [pism procesowych] was allowed. Fixed dates for court hearings was set. The procedures were simplified, but the language was also changed so that the claimants became the applicants, and the use of old, often Latin, terms and phrases was changed to English terms that were understood by most people.

A major trend in criminal proceedings since the early 19th century has been better protection of the rights of the accused. Since 1836, the accused have been entitled to a defense lawyer (also a public defender, in which case the state pays for the defense) and since 1898 they can testify on their own behalf. The right to appeal against convictions was created. In 1967, majority jury verdicts were allowed and restrictions were imposed on press coverage of preliminary trials. In the 19th century, a series of laws were passed that codified that part of the criminal law that, in addition to homicide, applies to individual crimes. The basic ideas have changed practically a little, other than the fact that some modern statutes impose no-fault liability [nałożyć odpowiedzialność bez winy], and that corporations can now be held accountable [pociągnięte do odpowiedzialności] for the actions of their executives. The death penalty was gradually abolished for most crimes and was eventually [ostatecznie] eliminated. In 1968, a new theft law, amended [znowelizowane] in 1978, replaced the previous one with a broader concept reminiscent [przypominająca] of the Roman laws.

The jurisdiction of the secular courts over the ecclesiastical courts ended in 1857 when the secular courts of divorce and probate were established and these merged [połączyły się] into the High Court of Justice in 1875. Common law and equity, however, retained their separate identities, partly because of the different subject matter they often dealt with, and because the lawyers insisted on maintaining that distinction [zachowanie tego rozróżnienia]. In the late 19th century, the three central common law courts were combined into the Queen's Bench Division, which still hears damages cases today. From 1875, cases were heard by one judge instead of a full panel of judges. Prior to the Courts Act [przed ustawą o sądach], criminal cases were tried two or three times a year by juries (sessions) of the Supreme Court, or four times a year by quarterly sessions of justices of the peace in the provinces, and were replaced by a system of permanent provincial crown courts. Small civil cases, settled in statutory county courts since 1846, are now governed by an Act introduced in 1984.

An unusual feature of the English criminal justice system compared to most European systems is that the role of lay judges is still very important, for which compulsory judicial training was introduced in 1964; it is currently regulated by the Council for Judicial Studies. The Criminal Justice Administration Act (1962) extended the powers of justices of the peace to summarily try [aby sądzić w trybie doraźnym] indictable offences [przestępstwa podlegające oskarżeniu]. Justices of the Peace now receive immediate and frequently updated guidance and training through online tools [narzędzia internetowe].

The modern Court of Appeal for civil cases at the Supreme Court was established in 1830 but was replaced in 1875 by the Court of Appeals consisting of special appellate judges. In 1907, the Criminal Court of Appeal was established, which was later merged [połączony] with the Court of Appeal. The divisional court hears appeals by justices of the peace [sędziów pokoju] on points of law. A final appeal, subject to conditions, can be made to the Supreme Court which, under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, replaced the House of Lords as the court of last resort [ostatniej instancji].

 

■ Development of common law in the US

The first English settlers on the Atlantic coast of North America brought with them only rudimentary [elementarne] concepts of law, there were few lawyers or law books, and the decisions of the English courts were almost unattainable [nieosiagalne]. Each colony passed its own charters, with governors or legislatures acting as courts. Civil and criminal cases were tried in the same courts, and the jury had broad powers. English laws enacted after the date of settlement were not automatically binding [obowiązującymi] in the colonies, and even English precedents were not binding. Several American colonies even introduced their own codes of law, and other colonies also practiced common law with local variations. It should be noted, however, that half of the signers of the Declaration of Independence were lawyers, and the US Constitution itself uses traditional English legal terms. After 1776, anti-British moods led some Americans to favour a new legal system, but European laws were varied, written in foreign languages of unknown thought [toku myślenia] and not available in a manual form [w formie podręcznika].

Blackstone's commentaries, reprinted in America in 1771, were widely used even though the new English statutes and decisions were officially ignored. In the 1830s, two great justices, James Kent of New York and Joseph Story of Massachusetts, made important commentaries on common law and equity, emphasising [podkreślając] the need for legal certainty and security of title. These works followed the common law tradition that was fundamental in the United States, except in Louisiana where French civil law survived. Common law was also adopted in other countries settled by the British; in Australia, New Zealand, British Canada and many colonies in Africa. But in many post-colonial countries, especially in India, South Africa and Quebec, existing legal systems had to be taken into account [trzeba było uwzględnić].

The American states perceived [postrzegały] the law as a binding force and used it to facilitate [aby ułatwić] cooperation in the face of natural hazards and other difficulties arising in the development of a new continent. Special laws were drawn up regarding timber, water and mineral rights, and procedures were followed [przestrzegano także procedur]. The local justice was preferred, as was the common sense of a local jury, and for a time there were even attempts to base the law on the Bible. But even as English law regained its foothold [odzyskało swoją pozycję], many of its institutions were rejected. For example, after death, according to the will, the land was inherited by all children, not as in England; the eldest son. The title was the rule [był zasadą], not long leases under landlords, and ecclesiastical courts did not exist.

 

■ Evolution of law in the US

In the mid-nineteenth century the law reformer; David Dudley Field, presided over the drafting [opracowaniu] of several legal codes and campaigned for the systematic, rational codification of United States law. With the exception of the Code of Civil Procedure, which was widely copied, Field's codes met little acceptance [spotkały się z niewielką akceptacją] in the state legislatures. Field's Civil Code was adopted by five states, including California and New York, but the common law tradition was so strong in those jurisdictions that the Civil Code became just another statute. Louisiana, whoich legal system is a hybrid of civil law and common law elements, is the only American state to have a civil law code. Despite the failure of the codification movement, U.S. law became increasingly statutory [coraz bardziej ustawowe], so that by the end of the 20th century, legislation prevailed over [dominowało nad] law made by judges. Generally speaking, American statutes are not interpreted as narrowly as in England, and there is less reluctance [niechęć] to change the old law.

In the US, state courts hear the vast majority of all civil and criminal cases. Local judges may sit in county or district courts, there is a single appeal, but many states have two levels of appeal. The Supreme Court is usually called the state's highest court, but this is different [się różni]. For example, in New York State, the Supreme Court is the trial court and the highest court is the Court of Appeals. The US Constitution established a federal Supreme Court and the Judiciary Act of 1789 introduced federal district and county courts. Most federal laws are statutory and enforced by federal courts. Tax, labour, securities, shipping, interstate commerce, antitrust, patent, and copyright laws fall into [podlegają] this category. After the ruling in Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Supreme Court became the final authority to determine the compatibility [zgodności] of all legislation with the Federal Constitution, which guarantees many fundamental rights.

To ensure fair treatment for out-of-state citizens or corporations registered elsewhere, federal courts may hear cases involving different nationalities. In such cases they act as if they were state courts, but they have been bound [zobligowane] by state statutes since 1842 and by state interpretations of common law and equity since 1938. Federal procedure is followed, but state laws are enforced on important matters; such as statute of limitations [zasada przedawnienia]. The due process guarantees of the Magna Carta of 1215 and the British Bill of Rights of 1689 are reflected in the first 10 amendments to the Federal Constitution, passed in 1791 and known as the Bill of Rights. Since the passage [uchwalenia] of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1868, the rights to life, liberty, and property have been protected from abolition [przed zniesieniem] by both the states and the federal government without due process of law; which means protecting private property from government regulation and in private contracts; against government interference [ingerencją]. However, it must be remembered that even after the abolition of slavery after the Civil War, and despite these constitutional guarantees, black men did not have equal rights with whites, and women had far fewer rights than men. However, ownership is still restricted by zoning laws [zagospodarowania przestrzennego] and health and safety measures, and the acquisition of real estate for public purposes may be justified under the doctrine of exceptional domain [wyjątkowej domeny]; that is, the government's power to seize private property for public use without the consent of the owner after payment of compensation. Also, the power of Congress to regulate the economy within its power to oversee interstate commerce was almost always upheld [podtrzymywane] by the Supreme Court; State legislation is generally considered constitutional in this area as well. Minimum wage laws and the right to collective bargaining [negocjacji zbiorowych] in industry are also recognised.  

Since the 1950s, the emphasis in constitutional cases shifted to human rights. The equal protection requirement of the law and the Civil Rights Act of 1866 led to the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, and later rulings prohibiting the use of public funds to separate private schools. The Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 applies not only to official laws and actions, but also to the conduct of private citizens. Accordingly [w związku z tym], no discrimination based on race, gender, religion or national origin is allowed in public entertainment venues [miejscach rozrywki] or resorts or in the employment practices of larger companies.

Since 1962, the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional ban [zakaz] on establishing a state religion to make formal prayer and religious teaching in public schools illegal. In 1971, freedom of the press was recognised as justifying The New York Times newspaper for publishing articles based on the so-called Pentagon documents, the secret history of US military involvement in Indochina, and women's right to abortion was recognised [uznane] by the Supreme Court in 1973 (Roe v. Wade). In subsequent rulings, the Court has stated that the Second Amendment protects the individual's right to own a firearm, and that spending by corporations and unions on independent political advertising is a form of constitutionally protected freedom of speech, and quite recently; in 2015, it decided that same-sex couples have a constitutional right to marry (Obergefell v. Hodges).

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 HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (HRM)         

 

Human resources management means influencing employees in an organisation or company in such a way and with the use of such instruments that the organisation or company achieves their aims by them.

The elements of the HR management process consist of many factors, the most important of which are:

- Human resource planning; i.e. planning to meet the future staffing needs of the organisation, taking into account both internal and external factors.

- Recruitment of employees; i.e. preparing a group of candidates for work in accordance with the human resources development plan.

- Selection of specific employees; i.e. a two-way process in which the company decides whether to offer a job to the candidate, and the candidate decides whether to accept the offer.

- Implementation [wcielanie] and adaptation of an employee to a specific job position; i.e. a program aimed at conflict-free integration of newly recruited employees into the company.

- Evaluating the effects of work; i.e. a continuous process of providing subordinates [podwładnych] with information about the effectiveness of their work.

- Training and development of employees; i.e. also a continuous process to maintain or increase efficiency in the position held.

- Rewarding employees, i.e. motivating the employee through higher salaries or bonuses.

Emphasis in human resources management is placed not only on the implementation of tasks entrusted to employees, but also on communication with employees, their identification with the organisation, attracting and motivating people. Human resources are seen as a company asset, and in some cases, a critical asset.

■ What is the role of management functions?

Managerial functions are designed to supervise the achievement of the goals for which the positions were created and their purpose is to exercise authority over the members of the staff subordinate to the manager and to contribute to its development. This function can be educational; i.e. the manager acts as a guardian and educator of the crew and creates an appropriate atmosphere of cooperation in the company, which will be conducive to the search for new sources of knowledge and skills and to unleash [uwolnić] the creative possibilities in people, preferably by showing it on their own example, to provide inspiration for self-improvement and continuous personal development. The manager must create situations that encourage subordinates to think critically and solve various organisational problems on their own, and try to include subordinates in decision-making processes concerning [dotyczących] the company, and during work must provide subordinates with the necessary knowledge and skills, preferably in a direct way; such as by personally teaching them in their posts of work.

The manager as the implementer of a specific company policy must also perform a regulatory function; i.e. conduct constant analysis and evaluation of the functioning of the subordinate department and draw conclusions from all the facts that have arisen, also by establishing specific rules of conduct in which subordinates can find answers to questions and doubts that arise at work.

In other words, being a manager means the function of leadership supported by knowledge. During managing an organisation, the superior influences the subordinates so that they behave in accordance with the goals of the company and with his / her will. It is best, therefore, when the formal manager becomes a leader also by the choice of the subordinates.

A good manager must have the predisposition to perform his / her function, but proper leadership also requires knowledge of the principles of management, so an effective manager should feel the need for leadership and power, but also have the ability to empathise [współczucia, zrozumienia]; that is, understanding people's emotional reactions and using this skill to deal with employees.

An important quality of a manager is also the ability to set priorities and balance between competing goals. A good manager should be able to think both analytically and synthetically but very often he / she needs the ability to convince and negotiate, the ability to respond to the needs of employees on the one hand, but also the ability to respond to the changing needs of the market, which is often contradictory [wzajemnie przeciwwstawne].

■ What changes should be made to the management of human resources in the company?

First of all, the development of scientific methods of work should take place, which will replace the traditional methods used so far, based on developed models, and the introduction of scientific methods of candidate selection. Employees should also be introduced to scientific methods of work organisation in order to enable them to achieve the best results at work. There should be a stricter introduction of the division of work and responsibility between employees and management, and the creation of conditions for their friendly cooperation. It is necessary to define a strict and useful purpose and break down individual processes into simple tasks in which employees specialise until they achieve the highest efficiency [wydajność], i.e. increasing individual work efficiency without introducing a stress factor, which in such situations acts as a brake. The second but probably the most important change in HRM is the employee participation; i.e. a set of measures (varieties and forms of action) available to employees in order to influence decisions made in the company and the possibility of using the generated financial surpluses (financial or ownership-financial participation). However, the condition for the effective exercise of the right to participation is the provision of reliable information and communication, which should enable employees to understand the business, conducive [sprzyjający] to making fruitful decisions. The dissemination [rozpowszechnianie] and, at the same time, high-ranking employee participation is also supported by the actions taken in connection with the implementation [wcielanie w życie] of the social policy of the European Union. Increasing the capacity of employees for creative initiatives by granting them the right to information and consultation is reflected in the relevant standards already in force for organisations operating on the single European market. In this way, there is a direct indication of the importance given to employee participation in the Community legislation. Looking at the EU directives, it can already be said that this rank is given in a formal way; i.e. by developing appropriate provisions in these directives and other Community documents, as well as by initiatives implemented at the level of individual EU Member States, and especially the enterprises operating in them. Employee participation should be considered as taking into account its varieties (indirect, direct, ownership and financial), as well as forms (information, consultation, co-decision, validation). The forms of participation reflect the level of employees' participation in solving problems emerging in the company. Indirect participation, which is an expression of employees' participation in management processes by their representatives, manifests itself, among others, in in the functioning of such bodies as trade unions, supervisory boards or works councils.

■ Which employee attitudes are the most difficult to shape?

In every environment, social groups are formed that largely control the behaviour of group members, so an individual is motivated not only by economic but also by psychosocial factors, and the effectiveness and reliability [zaufanie] of employees' actions depend on their positive attitude towards the organisation as a whole, and therefore the management must do everything to achieve a high level of employees satisfaction, and this can be achieved in the fastest way by using of management techniques that lead to the decentralisation of the decision-making process and the inclusion of all employee groups in its course. This process places greater emphasis on accountability [odpowiedzialność] than on external control, and particularly appropriate [właściwe] incentives are conducive to this; such as the pursuit of achievement at work, the belief that the effort put into the task will be noticed and appreciated [docenione], increasing the sense of responsibility and taking on more responsibilities by the employee. However, the implementation of this system into a well-functioning company's bloodstream seems to be the most difficult. In order to achieve this, appropriate motivational measures should be taken at all levels of management, starting from managers who should have knowledge about the needs and expectations of their subordinates and the ability to influence their attitudes and behaviours, to specialists in the field of human resources who have the ability to shape the motivation of employees by designing effective incentive systems. That is why it is so important in modern organisations to constantly expand and update the knowledge of managers in the field of motivating employees. It is the motivational competencies of managers and the ability to react quickly to changes in the applied motivational tools as well as their willingness to introduce changes to the existing motivational systems that largely determines the direction of achieving the goals of teams and the entire company.

■ Which communication style is the most useful for today's team leader?

The most popular concept of the division of management styles is the division into democratic, autocratic and liberal styles, called classic styles of management, but many researches show that a democratic manager achieves the best goals because he / she encourages the group to make decisions, helps in difficult situations, but the group decides for itself. Such leadership is generally more motivating to work because the relations within the group are based on friendliness and employees are highly satisfied with their participation [uczestnictwie] in the group. The reason for this is simple; people generally like work; they treat it as a necessary physical and mental effort that is as natural to them as fun and leisure [odpoczynek], therefore they prefer self-control to external control and punishment, and then they are more likely to be creative and original, and their intellectual potential is fully used. In view of the above arguments, there is probably no doubt that the democratic style is the most useful for a modern team leader.

■ Work organisation in human resources management

Work organisation rules should apply in every organisation and the most important of them are:

- Principle of economy of action; i.e. the best use of inputs [środków włożonych] while achieving the optimal effect.

- Principle of optimal performance [działanie]; that is, increasing labour inputs reaches the optimal useful result at a certain level, and exceeding its results in a decrease in the effect.

- Principle of division of labour; that is, breaking down complex work into simple elements to be performed by separate contractors increases work efficiency, but on the other hand; too far-reaching division leads to impoverishment [zubożenie] of work content and increases its monotony, which results in lower work efficiency. Thus, in each case, the division of labour should be adapted to the requirements and expectations of the employee.

- Principle of work concentration; i.e. performing homogeneous [jednorodne, jednego typu] activities by the same contractors, which results in an increase in work efficiency.

- The principle of economy of movements; i.e. striving [usiłujący] to minimise the employee's energy consumption, and thus to reduce their tiredness.

- The principle of safe work; that is, the employee is aware that he / she works in conditions of physical and mental safety, which also contributes [przyczynia się] to an increase in productivity.

Generally, all forms of work organisation are divided into two groups: individual work and team work. The simplest and oldest form of work organisation is, of course, individual work and it consists in separating certain activities from a set of tasks and entrusting [przekazywania] them to a person who does not enter into direct production relations with other employees, and this person independently performs tasks assigned to him / her by the manager. In the conditions of individual work, the employee, after entrusting him / her with a task to perform, becomes the organiser of his / her own work, of course within the limits imposed by the company and production technology, this situation gives him / her a lot of independence, but also requires high professional qualifications.

Teamwork is the basic and, at the same time, higher form of work organisation due to the benefits it can bring in the conditions of its proper organisation and is used in almost all areas of economic activity, most often in production, but also in research, design and construction. The basic advantage of teamwork is the fact that a well-organised teamwork allows to obtain higher results than it would result from a simple summing up of the work of each of its participants. Teamwork increases the benefits per contractor [korzyści przypadające na wykonawcę] compared to working alone, a phenomenon known as the law of synergy. Of course, the organisation of work in human resource management has a whole range of other varieties and conditions to describe here.

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